
Class. 



:A. 



£^ 



C)OpyrightN° - 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A GUIDE TO 
SYSTEMATIC READINGS 



IN THE 

NEW WERNER TWENTIETH CENTURY EDITION 

OF THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



BY 



JAMES BALDWIN, Ph D. 

e/Iuthor of "The 'Book Lover," "The 'Book of Elegies," "The 
Story of Siegfried," etc. 



REVISED BY 

FREDERICK T. JONES 



REVISED BY 

ALEXANDER ROSS READ, A. 



IQOO 1904 




THE WERNER COMPANY 

AKRON, OHIO 
1905 





.:?? 




. CU 


iViAY IS 


1 y05 


//') / oo 

uupY a. 



CorVRIGHT, 1894, BY 

THE WERNER COMPANY 

Copyright, 1895, ^^ 
THE WERNER COMPANY 

Copyright, 1S57, by 
THE WERNER COMPANY 

Copyright, 1900, by 
THE WERNER COMPANY 

Copyright, 1904, by 
THE WERNER COMPANY 

Copyright, 1905, by 
THE WERNER COMPANY 



Guide to BritaDuica 



MADE BY 

THE WERNER COMPANY 

AKRON, OHIO 



PREFACE 

To THE Guide to Systematic Readings in the New 

Werner Twentieth Century Edition of 

THE Encyclopedia Britannica. 



ALTHOUGH the Encyclopaedia Britannica has long been recognized as the greatest of 
reference works, and although its possessors may have never consulted it without com- 
plete satisfaction, yet its full value has seldom been recognized. It has usually been 
regarded simply as a repository of general information, to be kept ready at hand for consul- 
tation as occasion should demand. But while this is the ordinary use of the Britannica, it 
has been found that it possesses a broader function, and that it may be utilized in such 
manner as to perform the office of a great educational agent. The Britannica is a work 
of reference, and much more : it is a collection of all histories, all biographies, all arts, 
all literatures, and all scientific, professional, and mechanical knowledge; but on account 
of its comprehensiveness, extending as it does through so many large volumes, it presents 
such an " embarrassment of riches " that those who consult it fail sometimes to discover 
all that is suited to their individual needs. It is evident, therefore, that if each reader 
and patron of this great library can have a guide to point out to him, according to his 
vocation, the parts that are the most helpful to him, he will be able to systematize his 
reading or his investigations ; and thus, while economizing both time and labor, reach the 
highest results. The present volume has been prepared for that purpose; and it is believed 
that, recognizing its helpfulness, the many thousand owners of the Britannica will welcome 
it as an invaluable addition to their libraries. The plan has been to direct each individual 
how to draw from this great storehouse of knowledge that which will cover with all desir- 
able completeness the line of work in which he is most interested, thus assisting him in 
the knowledge of his particular business, and aiding him in its prosecution. 

It being recognized that the Britannica contains a great deal of interesting and profit- 
able matter for boys and girls, the first part of this Guide is addressed to young people. 
By the aid of brief but graphic text and copious references, the youth is led along pleasant 
avenues of research, and thus aided in acquiring a habit of reading and of investigation 
that will continue through life, and add largely to his chances of success. 

The second part is designed specially for students. The scholar who is desirous of some 
means whereby to supplement the work of the school or the college will find here the very 
thing he is seeking. The earnest, ambitious young man or young woman who is being 
self-educated, because unable to secure the aid of instructors, will find here a teacher that 
will point the way to the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of almost every branch of 
science or art. Numerous courses of study are outlined, which may be pursued independent 

(III) 



IV PKEFACE 

of schools ; many profitable lines of research are suggested, and the beat ways of obtaiDio^ 
a fund of general information are pointed out. 

The fact that the Britannica contains treatises from which have been drawn fifty-two text- 
books used in leading colleges and universities emphasizes its value to students. 

Through our excellent system of common schools, every boy or girl in the land is 
furnished with the rudiments of an education. But in the school the child is only started 
on the way; the best that can be done is to provide him with a few essentials, and give 
to him some slight impetus that will keep him moving on in the right direction. If he 
continue his studies beyond the public schools, he may be conducted a little farther — 
but it is only a little. No one's education was ever finished in a university. We are all, 
to a greater or less degree, self-educated. A great deal of what the schools foist on us 
as knowledge proves to be worthless to us, and is allowed to drop from our minds as 
soon as we are left to ourselves. The better part of our education is that which we 
acquire independently — through reading, through observation, through intercourse with 
others — an ever-increasing stock of what is called general information. It is the aim of 
this Guide to help, not only students, but everybody else, to gather this information in 
an orderly way, without unnecessary expenditure of time and labor. 

The third part of this volume is devoted to the busy world at large. Its object is 
to help the busy man, no matter what his business may be, to pick out from the Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica just that kind of information which will be of the greatest value to 
him in his calling. There is hardly a trade, industry, or profession in the civilized world 
that is not noticed somewhere in this department. A mere glance at the various chapters 
will indicate their practical value. 

On the whole, it is confidently believed that the plan of using the EncyclopcRdia 
Britannica presented in this Guide will fill a gap and perform an important service 
in our system of education. It should be a very material aid, not only to those whose 
schooldays have been brief, and who wish to continue their studies without the guidance 
of a teacher, but to people of every class and condition in life — to students, merchants, 
farmers, mechanics, housekeepers, and professional men of all sorts. It should enable boys, 
girls, men, women, and whole families to spend their leisure hours pleasantly and profit- 
ably with this great New Werner Twentieth Century Edition of the Encyclopa',dia Britan- 
nica, thus realizing one of its most important aims by making it th» most powerful aid to 
home culture or self-education that the world has ever known. 

THE WERNER COMPANY 
Akron, Ohio. 



PREFACE 



TO 



THE NEW AND REVISED EDITION 



THE publication of five new volumes of supplementary matter to the New Werner Twentieth 
Century Edition of the Encyclopoedia JBritannica not only furnishes an opportunity 

for the revision and enlargement of this Guide, but renders such a revision an abso- 
lute necessity. Encouraged by the flattering reception accorded to the first addition of these 
systematic readings, the compiler has ventured to extend the original plan by the addition of 
twelve new chapters, besides the insertion of many hundreds of references not previously 
included in the work. Some of the former readings have been entirely rewritten, and the 
chapters in the third division have been arranged in more logical order. It is believed that, 
in this revised edition of the Guide, but very few divisions of human thought or human 
activity have not received some attention. An examination of the index at the end of the 
volume will reveal the comprehensive nature of its contents. The five new volumes (num- 
bered XXV to XXIX) added to the New Edition of the Encyclopaedia Sritannica are 
designed to bring the work up to the present time. 

Oct., 1899. 

Dec, 1902. 

Oct., 1903. 

Sept., 1904. 

May, 1905. 



(V) 



MEN may gain a comprehensive knowledge of the 
world in two ways — by Experience, and by 
Reading. Experience comes with age. Read- 
ing is a substitute for it. By reading we gain 
the experience of others. The Encyclop(sdia Britan- 
nica is a record of the experience of men from the be- 
ginning of time to our own age, and in every field 
of activity and thought. 



(VIJ 



CONTENTS 



rNXaODUCTION, 



PAOE 

ix 



PART I. THE YOUNG PBOPLE. 
CHAPTER 

I. To THE Boys and Girls, - - - » 

II. Home Readings in History, 

III. Home Readings in Biography, 

IV. Home Readings in Science, 
V. Games, Sports, and Pastimes, 



17 
21 
25 
29 
31 



PART II. THE STUDENT. 

VI. Three Courses of Reading in History, ----- 37 

VII. Five Courses of Reading in the History of Literature, • 44 

VIII. Readings in Philology and in the History op Language, - 51 

IX. Readings in Astronomy, ....... 54 

X. A General Course of Reading in Biology, • - - - 57 

XI. Readings in Zoology, -....--- 58 

XII. Readings in Botany, - - - - - - - - - 63 

XIII. Readings in Geography, -.....- 55 

XIV. A Brief Course of Reading in Meteorology, - - • - 72 
XV. Readings in Mathematics, .-...-. 74 

XVI. Two Courses of Reading in Physics, - ■ • - - 77 

XVII. Readings in the Study of Man, -.-.-. 80 

XVIII. Readings in Philosophy, -------- 83 

XIX. Readings for Bible Students, ....... 87 

XX. Readings in Mythology, Legends, Traditions, and Folklore, 90 

XXI. Readings in the Study of the Supernatural, - . . 94 

XXII. The Desultory Reader's Course, --..., 97 



PART III. THE BUSY WORLD. 

XXIII. The Manufacturer, - . . ~ 

XXIV. The Mechanic, - . . - - 
XXV. The Machinist, . . . . ^ 

XXVI. The Electrician, . . . « 



101 

. 105 

,-. 108 

iia 

(VII) 



vin ^ CONTENTS 

OHAPTEB PAGE 

XXVII. The Inventor, ■' - 113 

XXVIII. The Architect, 117 

XXIX. The Builder, 119 

XXX. The Engineer, 121 

XXXI. The Laborer, 123 

XXXII. The Farmer, 125 

XXXIII. The Gardener, 129 

XXXIV. The Fruit-Grower, ^ . - 131 

XXXV. The Woodsman, - - 133 

XXXVI. The Stock-Raiser and Dairyman, 135 

XXXVII. The Miner, 137 

XXXVIII. The Geologist, 139 

XXXIX. The Seaman, 140 

XL. The Railroad-Man, 143 

XLI. The Soldier, 145 

XLII. The American Citizen, ....-..- 150 

XLIII. The Candidate for Civil Service, ..... 153 

XLIV. The Political Economist, 163 

XLV. The Banker and Financier, ..-.--. 165 

XLVI. The Merchant and Trader, ..,...- 170 

XLVII. The Insurance Agent, ... .... 173 

XLVIII. The Lawyer, .... 174 

XLIX. The Magistrate and Policeman, ...... 180 

L. The Physician, ..-.-..-.. 182 

LI. The Apothecary, ..-..-... 186 

LII. The Chemist, 187 

LIII. The Mineralogist, ...-----. 189 

LIV. The Preacher and Theologian, ...... 191 

LV. The Philanthropist and Reformer, ..... 198 

LVI. The Public Speaker, ......... 201 

LVII. The Bookman, 203 

LVIII. The Teacher, .... ---.•- 206 

LIX. The Writer, - 212 

LX. The Stenographer and Typewriter, ..... 218 

LXI. The Printer and the Publisher, 219 

LXII. The Journalist, - - 221 

LXIII. The Artist, - • - - 222 

LXIV. The Musician, - - 226 

LXV. The Actor and Dramatist, ....... 229 

LXVL The Home-Maker, ......... 233 

Index, .,.,.. 237 



INTRODUCTION 



"TT IS ours — this superb New Werner Twentieth Century Edition of the 
Y Encyclopaedia Br itannica — and now how shall we use it in order to derive 
the greatest possible benefit from it ? " This is probably the question 
which more than one purchaser of the Britannica asks himself as he removes 
the bright new volumes from their wrappings, and contemplates his lately 
acquired possession. Let us first arrange these thirty volumes side by side 
on their shelf, and take a look at the work as a whole. 

It is the greatest work of its kind in the world, everybody says. In 

these volumes are the elements of a complete education in any branch 

What shall ^^ knowledge that you may choose. You can scarcely mention a 

"«^e do subject about which men think and talk, that does not receive 

with it? 

its share of attention somewhere in this wonderful work. It con- 
tains a rich fund of information for everybody, from the schoolboy or school- 
girl to the most learned philosopher. It is valuable alike to the farmer 
and to the merchant, to the mechanic and to the professional man. Turn 
over the pages of a single volume, and notice the great variety of articles, 
some necessarily brief, others very long and comprehensive. Notice the 
numerous illustrations, the maps, and the fine full-page plates. See the 
list of famous specialists and well-known writers who have helped to make 
this volume. Surely this is a work which every man ought to be proud 
to own. 

But unless we know how to use our Encyclopedia, we shall fail to get 
from it as much benefit as we might. No book is of value unless its 
owner knows how to extract some pleasure or profit from its pages. It 
will not be hard to get both pleasure and profit from the Britannica, even 
though we should allow it to remain on its shelf and consult it only when 
we want to find the answer to some question that is asked. Most people 
use an encyclopaedia in that way ; and many do not know that it was 
designed for any other purpose. That is the proper and only way in which 



X INTRODUCTION 

to use a dictionary. But the Encyclopcedla Britannica is a great deal more 
than a dictionary, and it is capable of imparting more knowledge and more 
enjoyment than all the dictionaries in the world. 

In order that we may make the most of the rich storehouse of knowledge 

that is ours, let us consult our Guide to the Encyclopaedia. Britannica. Here 

Y^j^jj a large number of the most interesting subjects are arranged 

Peoples systematically under appropriate headings or in special chapters. 

The first five chapters refer to subjects that are of interest to 
young people. There are thousands of older people, too, who will like these 
chapters. 

The next seventeen chapters are designed to aid students and specialists 
in the prosecution of their studies and investigations. The vast range of the 
Britannica is nowhere better illustrated than in these chapters. Among the 
easier courses in reading here marked out are those in History (Chapter 
VT), in Geography (Chapter XHI), in Bible History (Chapter XIX), and in 

Mythology (Chapter XX). In Chapter XI there are three courses in 
Department Zoology — the first two being popular courses, which everybody may 

understand ar i enjoy ; the third, a purely scientific course, intended 
for only special students. Some other chapters, notably that on Mathematics 
(Chapter XV), refer to subjects and articles in which only scholars and spe- 
cialists usually take an interest. Although they may seem of but little use to 
us now, there will probably be a time when some of us will grow up to them, 
and find them to be exactly what is required to meet our wants. Besides 
this, some of our neighbors and friends are now specially interested in those 
subjects, and would not want such articles omitted. 

After the Students' department, there are more than forty chapters show- 
ing tradesmen, farmers, teachers, and others how to derive the greatest 

good from the Britannica. Some of these chapters are sufficiently 
Peoples broad in their scope and character to be of interest to every 

intelligent person, no matter what his calling in life. For instance, 
what man in this country will not be benefited by a study of the chapter 
entitled "The American Citizen"? What American citizen will not find much 
interesting and valuable information concerning the history of money, the 
conflict of standards, and the national finances, in the brief chapter entitled 
"The Banker"? To young men and young women wishing to enter the civil 
service of their city, state, or country, in any capacity, the chapter for " The 
Candidate for the Civil Service" will give much information and assistance that 
cannot be easily obtained from any other source. Here is a chapter to aid 
the young lawyer in fitting himself to take a higher position in his profes- 



INTRODUCTION xi 

sion. Here is a chapter for the preacher, showing him what a complete theo- 
logical library every owner of the Britannica has at his service. Here is a 
chapter for the farmer, telling him where he may learn all about soils and 
crops and fetilizers and farming tools, and the thousand other things which 
interest all intelligent tillers of the ground. Here is a chapter for the soldier, 
and for all would-be soldiers, directing them to a vast fund of information 
about wars and battles and fire-arms and military law— such as can be found 
in no other single publication in the world. But it is needless to enumerate 
further. A glance at the pages which compose the latter half of the book 
will show that no person in all this busy world of ours has been forgotten. 
Surely, with so many hints and helps at our hands, we shall not be content 
to use our Encydopcedia merely as a dictionary. The Guide will suggest 
many ways in which we may begin immediately to make it yield us large 
returns of pleasure and profit. 

Would we engage in some kind of intellectual employment during the 

long evenings of winter? Let us form ourselves into a family reading 

Famii circle, and read some of the lighter courses suggested by the Guide 

Telling (see Chapters I, H, III, IV, VI, XII, XVII). Would we like to know 

Circle 

where we can pick up something to read occasionally for pastime 
rather than for study? Let us see if Chapter XXII will not help us. Do 
we want to improve our brawn and muscle through systematic and pleasur- 
able exercise? We may find something in Chapter V, on games, sports, and 
pastimes, that will point out the way. Is Tommie troubled about the com- 
position that he is to write for the examination at the school? Perhaps 
the chapter (LIX) for the Writer will be found helpful. Is Mary anxious 
to become a teacher, and yet not ready to begin a course of study at the 
normal school? In Chapter LVIII the Guide will direct her to some very 
complete courses of reading on subjects concerning which no teacher can afford 
to be ignorant. Is John, who cast his first ballot last year, deeply interested 
in politics, and hopeful that he may some time become a candidate for public 
office? Let him devote his spare time to the study of such articles as the 
Guide indicates for the American Citizen, the Public Speaker, and the Political 
Economist. Is Andrew skilful with tools, and handy about making things? 
The Guide has numerous interesting suggestions for the Inventor, the Me- 
chanic, the Electrician, and the Engineer. 

And so, for every person and for every occupation in life, the Encyclojpcedia 
Britannica comes with its inexhaustible fund of information ; and this trusty 
Guide which accompanies it shows each person just iiow he can best extract 
the information which he needs. 



XII INTRODUCTION 

EXPLANATIONS. 

The references in the Guide are necessarily brief, but there will be no 

trouble in understanding them. The titles of important subjects are fre- 

Eeferences Quentlj printed in SMALL CAPITALS ; but where a number of titles occur 

to the jj2 a, single list, all are generally printed in plain lower-case letters. 

Britannica '^ ..... 

The volume of the Britannica is indicated by Roman numerals ; the 
page by Arabic figures. Occasionally the letter a is used to indicate the left- 
hand column of a page, and the letter h the right-hand column, accents being 
added to show whether the matter referred to begins at the top, the middle, 
or the bottom of the column. When the page referred to is found in the 
New American Supplement (comprising five volumes), the figures denoting it 
are preceded by the volume numbers XXV to XXIX. 

Examples. — Notice the following references: 

(1) Bracelets, IV, 169. 

(2) Quill pens, IX, 53a." 

(3) Sea serpent, XXI, 638b.'" 

(4) Bells, XXV, 419 and 420. 

(5) May-day customs, XV, 654 b." 

It is easy to understand what each one of these references means. An 
examination of them, in connection with the explanations above, shows us 

(1) That the article on Bracelets is found in volume IV, page 169. 

(2) That Quill Pens are described in volume IX, page 53, beginning at 
the middle of the first column. 

(3) That an account of the Sea Serpent occurs in volume XXI, 638, 
beginning at the bottom of the second column. 

(4) That there is an article on Bells in volume XXV, pages 419 and 420. 

(5) That an account of May-day Customs may be found in volume XV, page 
654, beginning near the middle of the second colume. 

So many special subjects receive treatment in some of the chapters, that no 
mere chapter-headings are sufficient to indicate everything that is included 
within their limits. For example, there is no distinct chapter for the shoe* 
maker, the carpenter, the mason, the cook, the fisherman ; but each of these 
busy workers receives his share of attention in the Guide. Look for these 
names, not in the table of contents, but in the Index at the end of the volume. 
It will be convenient to use this Index often. 

Few persons will have any difficulty in using the Index Volume of the 
Britannica. In most cas3s, if you desire to make a complete study of any 



INTRODUCTION xiii 

given subject, it will be best to look for that subject at once in the Index 
volume. The word which you are looking for will probably be found in its 

proper alphabetical place. There you will be directed to every article 
"^^volvme^ or passage in the Britannica wherein any important mention of the 

subject occurs. The first reference is usually to the special article 
on the subject ; or, if there is no special article, it will direct you to the 
next best thing — the fullest or most complete description. For example, sup- 
pose you want to learn all about the Indians. Turn to the Index volume, and 
on page 456 you will find the following entry : 

Indians, American, XII, a 862-74; American, I, b 602; literature 
of (Eliot), VIII, a 5 128; renewal of (United States), XXIII, 
a 800 ; treaties with (Newark), XVII, a 380 ; South Ameri- 
can (Acclimatization), I, a 85 ; subjugation of (United States), 
b 799 ; steel (Iron), XIII, b 352-53 ; summer (Canada), VI, 
a 682 ; swords (Iron), XIII, b 342. 

Consulting the first reference ("volume XII, page 862") you will find an 
article of eleven pages in length, giving a concise account of the Indians, 
their physical traits, tribal divisions, customs, etc. The second reference 
("American, I, 602 ") directs the reader to the article America, where there is a 
complete history of the aboriginal races, with still further notices of their 
habits, languages, religions, etc. The third reference (" literature of (Eliot), 
VIII, a h 128 ") directs attention to paragraphs under the article headed 
Eliot, John, which tell about the translation of the Bible and other books 
published in the Indian language. The remaining references may be 
found with equal facility, and are self-explanatory. After having consulted 
as many of these as you think necessary, you may still wish to learn the 
very latest facts relative to the status of the Indian tribes in the United States. 
Turning to the Index to the Supplements, see whether or not there are addi- 
tional references of a similar character there. By turning to any articles that 
may be thus indicated, you will doubtless find all the information on this 
subject that you desire. 

Any other subject may be studied in a similar way. 

Now take the word Sea, or London, or Columbus, and find all the references 
to it given in the Index. 

Whenever the word for which you are looking cannot be found in the 
first part of the Index, look for it in the second part, which relates to the 
Supplements; that is, to volumes XXV to XXIX. 

Another important feature of the Britannica, and one which is not 
alluded to elsewhere in this Guide, is the Condensed Biographical 
Dictionary, appended to the last supplement volume, i. e., Vol. XXIX. 



XIV INTRODUCTION 

For quick and ready reference this dictionary will often prove to be of 
Condensed great service. It is one of the most complete dictionaries of its 
fcaf^^-' ^^^^ ^^^^ published, containing the names of more than 25,000 per- 
ttonary sons, with their titles or vocations, and the dates of birth and death. 
Further particulars with regard to many (but, of course, not all) of these per- 
sons may be found by referring to the Index, which will point out the exact 
place in the Britannica where the desired information is given. 

[The Encyclopcedia Britaiuiica is a work of reference, and much more; it is a collection of all histories, 
all biographies, all arts, all literatures, and all scientific, professional, and mechanical knowledge, presenting 
almost an embarrassment of riches. To the users it gives that satisfaction which one would naturally expect 
from such an authority. As a guide to vocations it is most helpful, as it will enable a boy to systematize his 
reading or his investigations, and thus, while economizing both time and labour, to reach the highest results. 
No one's education was ever finished in a school. We are all, to a greater or less degree, self-educated. A 
great deal of what the schools give us as knowledge may prove worthless, and will probably be allowed to 
drop from the mind as soon as we are left to ourselves. The better part of our education is that which we 
acquire independently — through reading, through observation, through intercourse with others — an ever- 
increasing stock of what is called " general information." The owner of the New Werner Twentieth Century 
Edition of the Encyclopcedia Britannica will be enabled to pick out just that kind of information that will be 
of the greatest value to him in his calling, for there is hardly a trade, industry, or profession in the civilized 
world that is not treated in its pages. So, too, with the lad into whose hands it will fall. Hardly knowing 
what he seeks, he will find much that interests him, and almost unconsciously will acquire stores of knowledge 
that some future day he will find invaluable.] THE WERNER COMPANY, 

Piihlishers. 
Akron, Ohio. 




PART 1 



THE YOUNG PEOPLE 



•■*v 



CHAPTER 1 
To THE Boys and Girls 

" Now, my young friends, this habit of reading is your pass to 
the greatest, the purest, and the most perfect pleasures that God 
has prepared for his creatures. But you cannot acquire this habit 
in your old age ; you cannot acquire it in middle age; you must 
do it now, when you are young. You must learn to read, and to 
like reading, now, or you cannot do so when you are old." 



Tbe Brltan 
nica 



Allow me to introduce you, boys 
and girls, to the Encyclopcedia Britan- 
nica. It is, without question, 
the greatest book of its kind 
that has ever been published 
in our language. Here we have it in 
over a score of huge volumes, with thou- 
sands of illustrations and hundreds of 
maps and diagrams. The amount of 
matter which it contains is so great 
that it would take you several years to 
read it through. 

But it is not intended that anybody 
shall read it through. It would be ex- 
tremely foolish for you to begin with 
the first page of the first volume, and 
try to read everything in the order in 
which it comes. It would be like sit- 
ting down at a table loaded with delica- 
cies, and trying to eat everything, from 
the first dish to the last, without consid- 
ering either your tastes or your needs. 
No person in his right senses would 
think of doing such a thing. You will 
readily understand, therefore, how im- 
portant it is that you should know, at 
the very outset, what this famous book 
is, and how it ought to be used in order 
that it may be of the greatest possible 
assistance and value to you. 

2 



— Anthony Trollope. 

What is an encyclopaedia? 

It is a book which treats of all tha 

various kinds of knowledge. In other 

words, it is a book which contains some 

information concerning every- 

wiatiait? ^j^-jjg ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ learned by 

man in this life. If you could know 
the whole encyclopaedia by heart, you 
would be a very learned person indeed. 
But, of course, this is impossible; and it 
would be very unwise for you to think 
of becoming a great scholar in that way. 
You do not want to make a walking 
encyclopsedia of yourself. 

Does the carpenter carry his chest of 
tools around on his back while he is at 
work? Of course not. But he knows 
where the chest is, and he 
knows just where each tool is 
placed in it, so that he can 
lay his hands upon it in a moment, 
even though his eyes be shut. So it 
should be with your encyclopsedia. You 
don't want to load your mind with the 
millions of facts which it contains, or 
burden your memory with the retention 
of them all. But you want to know 
your encyclopaedia so well that, when 
it is desirable to lay hold of a cer- 
tain fact, you can do so without 

(17) 



How to 
use It 



18 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIC A 



loss of time, and without unnecessary 
labor. 

Again, among the great variety of 
tools which the carpenter has in his 
chest, there are some which he uses 
very often, there are others which he 
needs only on special occasions, and 
there are still others which, being re- 
quired for only the very finest work, 
may not be called into use more than 
once or twice for years at a time. But 
it is necessary to have all these tools, 
and to know how to handle them, for 
there is no telling when they may be 
called for. And so it is with your en- 
cyclopa3dia. Some of its articles will 
be helpful to you day by day, as you 
carry on your studies at school or your 
work at home. Others are at present 
of no interest to you. Indeed, you will 
find not a few that are wholly incom- 
prehensible to you. But that which is 
of no use to-day may be just the thing 
that you will need a year, two years, or 
five years from to-day; and the articles 
which you cannot now by any means 
understand may contain exactly what 
you will enjoy and be profited by when 
you are a little older. And so it will 
be a good thing at the outset to confine 
your inquiries and your readings to 
those subjects which are the easiest for 
you, and in which you will naturally be 
the most deeply interested. 

Now, here are some curious things 
which you may like to read about. 
They have been selected at random 
from among hundreds of oth- 
ers that will from time to 
time be suggested to you. 

The Bo-tree (the oldest tree in the 
world), IX, 135; XXV, 553. 

The Banyan tree, III, 300. 

Great trees of California, IV, 623. 

The Upas tree, XXIII, 916. 



Curioas 
Tilings 



Pygmies (famous little people of Af- 
rica), XX, 126. 

Gipsies, X, 545. This is a long arti- 
cle, and a part of it may not be inter- 
esting to you; but you will certainly 
like to read the section which describes 
their modes of life, X, 549. 

Magic mirrors, XVI, 524. 

Poison rings, XX, 576. 

Ancient bottles, IV, 152. 

Great bells, XXV, 419. 

Kites and Kite-flying, XXVII, 506. 

Bracelets, IV, 169. 

History of fans, IX, 25, 

History of the American Flag, XXVI, 
658. 

Flags in ancient and modern times, 
IX, 241. 

Holidays, XXVII, 302. 

The sea serpent, XXI, 638. 

Cataracts and waterfalls, XXVI, 85. 

Quill pens for writing, IX, 53. 

The great wall of China, XXVII, 160. 

The thugs of India, XXIII, 348. 

Wax figures, XXIV, 486. 

Spinning in old times, XXIV, 766. 

Egyptian, Greek, and Roman months, 
IV, 590. 

Wild animals of India, XII, 779. 

The roc (monster bird of the Arabian 
Nights), XX, 626. 

The honey guide (a curious little 
bird), XII, 143. 

The cockatrice, VI, 90. 

The hunters and the glutton, X, 620, 

The ichneumon, XII, 665. 

The custom of April Fool, II, 187. 

May-day customs in old times, XV. 
654. 

The Nile festival in Egypt, VII, 630. 

The ordeal of fire in the Middle Ages, 
XVII, 843. 

Deodands, VII, 87. 

The divining-rod, VII, 255, and XI, 
490. 



TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS 



19 



Heroes 



The automaton, III, 123. 

The hornbook, XII, 174. 

The diving-bell, VII, 255-260. 

Balloons, I, 169. 

Every young person likes to read 
about heroes and deeds of heroism. 
The Britannica tells of a great 
number. A very interesting 
course of reading may be made up 
from the following and similar sub- 
jects: 

Leonidas, king of Sparta, w^ho with 
300 men defended a mountain pass 
against the entire Persian army, XIV, 
463. 

Cincinnatus, who was called from his 
plough to be dictator of Rome, V, 685. 

Horatius Codes, who defended the 
bridge across the Tiber, and thus saved 
Rome, VI, 92. 

Regulus, the Roman who suffered 
death rather than break his word, XX, 
361. 

Arminius, or Hermann, the ancient 
German hero, X, 430. 

The Cid, the national hero of Spain, 
V, 675. 

William Tell, the mythical hero of 
Switzerland, XXIII, 171. 

William Wallace, national hero of 
Scotland, XXIV, 347-48. 

Arnold von Winkelried, the Swiss pa- 
triot, XXIV, 644. 

Jeanne d'Arc, the heroine who saved 
France from the English, XIII, 706; IX, 
485. 

Captain John Smith, famous in the 
early history of Virginia, XXII, 183; 
XXIV, 280. 

John III (Sobieski), the Polish hero, 
XIII, 725; XIX, 307. 

Gustavus Adolphus, the Swedish Prot- 
estant hero, XI, 298-99. 

Kosciusko, the Polish patriot, XIV, 
143. 



Andreas Hofer, the Tyrolese patriot, 
XII, 46. 

Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, XXVII, 
65. 

Then there are scores of interesting 
articles about kings, warriors, and states- 
men, some of which you will 
Warriors, Want to read. The following 
and are examples: 

a esmen Alexander the Great, I, 425. 

Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, 
XI, 394. 

Scipio Africanus, XXI, 488-89. 

Julius Caesar, the greatest of the Ro- 
mans, IV, 562. 

Marcus Aurelius, III, 75-78. 

Stilicho, XXII, 578. 

Belisarius, III, 462. 

'Omar, XVI, 586. 

Charles Martel, V, 370. 

Charlemagne, V, 349-50. 

Alfred the Great, I, 447. 

William the Conqueror, XXIV, 606. 

Richard Coeur de Lion, XX, 554. 

Jenghiz Khan, XIII, 631-33. 

Timur (Tamerlane), XXIII, 425-27. 

William the Silent, XXIV, 614-15. 

Akbar, I, 385. 

Richelieu, XX, 559; IX, 500. 

Cromwell, VI, 528-36. 

Peter the Great of Russia, XVIII, 
712. 

Charles XII of Sweden, V, 364-66. 

George Washington, XXIV, 408. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, XVII, 199. 

William Pitt, XIX, 143-59. 

Wellington, XXIV, 521-27. 

Nelson, XVII, 330-33. 

Abraham Lincoln, XIV, 665-69. 

Ulysses S. Grant, XXVII, 142. 

Robert E. Lee, XIV, 400. 

Count von Moltke, XXVIII, 122-23. 

Prince Bismarck, XXV, 485. 

William E. Gladstone, XXVII, 103. 



20 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNJCA 



Or, if you would read of explorers, 
travellers, discoverers, and adventurers, 
see such articles as these: 

Hwen T'sang, XII, 434-35. 

Marco Polo, XIX, 417. 

Mandeville, XV, 480. 

Ibn Batuta (14th century), XII, 642. 

Prince Henry the Navigator, XI, 599. 

Bartolommeo Dias, VII, 146. 

Columbus, VI, 153. 

Hernan Cortes, VI, 390-91. 

Francisco Pizarro, XIX, 169. 

Ferdinand Magellan, XV, 198. 
Discoverers John and Sebastian Cabot, 

and Ad- IV, 552. 

venturers jy^ g^^^^ yjj^ ^^^ 

Sir Francis Drake, VII, 337. 

Martin Frobisher, IX, 695. 

Vasco da Gama, X, 52. 

Henry Hudson, XII, 346. 

Captain Kidd, XXVII, 495. 

Captain Cook, VI, 294. 

African Explorations, I, 219. 

David Livingstone, XIV, 726-29. 

Henry M. Stanley, and the recent dis- 
coveries in Africa, XXIX, 149. 

Arctic Explorations and Discoveries, 
XIX, 327-43; XXVIII, 448. 

Sir John Franklin, IX, 633. 

Australian Explorers, III, 91. 

Then aside from this mere reading 

for pleasure or ordinary information, 

you will want to learn from 

°TM*ngs° *^°^® *^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^ great many 
things are done. The Britan- 
nica will help you. For example, notice 
the following: 

How to make liquid glue, X, 120 a. 

How to do cold gilding, X, 530 b. 

How to tie knots, XIV, 129 a. 

How to make gold lacquer for brass 
work, XIV, 195 a. 

How to make snow-shoes, XXII, 
213 a. 



How to make pantographs, XVIII, 218. 

Howtomakephotographs,XXVIII,410. 

How to do sleight-of-hand tricks, XIV, 
415. 

How to collect butterflies, IV, 531 b. 

How to make putty, XX, 124. 

How to build an ice-house, XII, 650 a. 

How to shoe a horse, XXI, 870-71. 

How bells are made, III, 463. 

How matches are made, XV, 631. 

How to do with a magic lantern, XV, 
212. 

How nets are made, XVII, 367. 

How to make flies for trout fishing, 
II, 37. 

How pins are made, XIX, 106. 

How a marble statue is made, XXI 
598. 

How to make a canoe, IV, 716. 

How to rig a ship, XXI, 621. 

How to care for hunting hounds, XII, 
328. 

How to make bows and arrows, II, 
328 b. 

How to catch fish with a hook, II, 32. 

How to make a bull-roarer, XXV, 641. 

How carrier-pigeons are trained, 
XXVI, 72. 

And now do you not begin to see 
what a vast amount of entertaining and 
useful knowledge lies before you in 
these volumes, ready for you to use 
when you choose? 

In the chapters that are to follow, an 
effort will be made to classify a few of 
the subjects which will be of most in- 
terest to you. In this way the Guide 
hopes to help you to a still further and 
more intimate acquaintance with the 
contents of the Britannica. If you once 
acquire the habit of consulting it, you 
will find it a trustworthy friend, ready 
to answer your questions and willing to 
help you on all occasions. 



HOME READINGS IN HISTORY 



21 



The Index volume of the Britannica 
will be of great assistance to you in 
making references to any of the other 
volumes. When you want to find out 
anything about a given subject, it is 



often a good plan to turn at once to 
that volume. If you do not know how 
to use the Index, refer now to pages 
XII and XIII of this Guide, and read 
the direction^ given there. 



CHAPTER H 
Home Keadings in History 

" The use of reading is to aid us in thinking." — Edward Gibbon. 



Courses of 
Beading 



To KNOW one thing well is better than 
to have a smattering of many things. It 
is an excellent plan to choose for your- 
self some particular subject which you 
like, and then to follow a sys- 
tematic course of reading on 
that subject until you have 
acquired a comprehensive knowledge of 
it. Some of you will prefer history, 
some of you biography (which is really 
a branch of history), some of you sci- 
ence, and some of you art. In begin- 
ning such a course read that which you 
can readily understand; you will gradu- 
ally become able to understand and en- 
joy things which now seem very hard 
or totally unintelligible to you. It is 
not intended that a course of this kind 
should take the place of the miscellane- 
ous reading which you will want to go 
through — of the stories, poems, sketches, 
the many excellent and beautiful things 
in literature which every intelligent 
boy or girl takes delight in reading. 
The object of this course is to add to 
your knowledge, to aid you in think- 
ing, to help you to become an intelli- 
gent man or woman. Having once de- 
cided to begin it, resolve that nothing 
shall induce you to neglect it. Devote 



a little time to it regularly. If you give 
ten minutes every day to systematic 
reading — and you need not give more 
— you will be astonished at the end of a 
year to note how many things you have 
learned. If you find the reading pretty 
difiicult now and' then, you must not 
give up on that account. The hardest 
reading is often the most profitable — 
provided always that we make ourselves 
masters of it. 

A great many articles in the Britan- 
nica may be utilized in courses of read- 
ing of this kind. If the Britannica is 
the only book to which you have access, 
these articles may be made to comprise 
a complete course in themselves. But 
if there are at hand other books on the 
same subject, then the readings from the 
Britannica may be made to supplement 
your study of these other authorities. 
For instance, let us suppose that you 
have undertaken to learn all you can 
about United States history. Perhaps 
you have studied a text-book on that 
subject at school. Did it seem dull and 
dry to you? Perhaps the writer has 
made it so by trying to compress a 
great amount of information into a 
very small space. He has given a large 



22 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



number of dates and names, and you 
have been expected to learn these and 
remember them. 

But history is a good deal more than 

dates and names. It is a fascinating 

story, and people read it be- 

^^fl^^ o cause of the pleasure which it 

History? ^ 

gives no less than for the profit 
which may be derived from it. Take 
now your school history and supple- 
ment the lessons which it contains 
with readings from the following arti- 
cles in the Britannica: 

The story of Columbus, VI, 153. 

The life of Cortes, the conqueror of 
Mexico, VI, 390. 

Discoverers The life of Pizarro, the con- 
ana queror of Peru, XIX, 169; and 
Colonists ^ particular account of his 
exploits in Peru, XVIIT, 690. 

The life of Balboa, the discoverer of 
the Pacific Ocean, III, 236; and a par- 
ticular account of his great discovery, 
X, 163. 

The life of De Soto, the discoverer of 
the Mississippi, VII, 114. 

The life of Sir Francis Drake, the first 
Englishman who sailed round the world, 
VII, 337. 

The life of Sir Walter Ealeigh, the 
great admiral, statesman, and courtier, 
XX, 274. 

The life of Captain John Smith, who 
figures so prominently in the story of 
the settlement of Virginia, XXII, 183. 

The story of Pocahontas, the Indian 
princess, XXII, 185. 

The story of the Pilgrim Fathers, XII, 
764. 

The account of the Dutch settlers in 
New York, XVII, 466. 

The life of William Penn, the Quaker 
founder of Pennsylvania, XVIII, 502. 

The story of Marquette, the French 
explorer, XV, 572. 



Great Amer 
icans 



The life of La Salle, who rediscovered 
the Mississippi, XIV, 319. 

The story of Pontiac, the Indian chief. 
XVIII, 514. 

The life of General Wolfe, the hero of 
Quebec, XXIV, 664. 

The life of Washington, 
XXIV, 408. 
The life of Franklin, Amer- 
ica's first philosopher, IX, 626. 

The life of Patrick Henry, XI, 602. 

The life of John Adams, I, 129. 

The life of Thomas Jefferson, XIII, 624. 

The story of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, XXIII, 785. 

The life of Lafayette, XIV, 202. 

The life of General Greene, XI, 146. 

The story of Benedict Arnold, XXIII, 
785. 

The life of Cornwallis, VI, 379. 

An account of Aaron Burr, XI, 369. 

The life of Alexander Hamilton, XI, 
368. 

And now, if you wish to continue 
your historical readings to the present 
time, you may do so by reading the bi- 
ographies of the Presidents who have 
not been named in the list above: 

James Madison, XV, 183. 
James Monroe, XVI, 787. 
John Quincy Adams, I, 130. 

Andrew Jackson, XIII, 543. 

Martin Van Buren, XXIV, 63. 

William H. Harrison, XI, 442. 

John Tyler, XXIII, 717, 802. 

James K. Polk, XIX, 415; XXIII, 804-5. 

Zachary Taylor, XXIII, 102, 805-7. 

Millard Fillmore, IX, 144; XXIII, 807. 

Franklin Pierce, XIX, 90; XXIII, 808. 

James Buchanan, IV, 371. 

Abraham Lincoln, XIV, 665; XXIII, 
812, 813, 814, 815-819. 

Andrew Johnson, XIII, 729; XXIII,819. 

Ulysses S. Grant, XXIII, 817 18; 820- 
23; also XXVII, 142. 



The Presi- 
dents 



HOME READINGS IN HISTORY 



23 



Rutherford B. Hayes, XXIII, 823-4; 
also XXVII, 261. 

James A. Garfield, XXVII, 65. 

Chester A. Arthur, XXV, 256. 

Grover Cleveland, XXVI, 197. 

Benjamin Harrison, XXVII, 237. 

William McKinley, XXVII, 673. 

By the time you have read all these 
biographies you will have acquired such 
a knowledge of American history as 
will be of value to you as long as you 
live. But to some of you this course 
may seem hard, dry reading. If so, it 
will be no trouble to suggest another — 
a very different one, which all boys 
who are fond of the sea and not afraid 
of a little history will turn to with 
pleasure. 

NAVAL HISTORY. 

Ships in former times were very dif- 
ferent from those which sail the sea 
nowadays. Read of the first invention 
of boats and ships in volume XXI, page 
840. Among the earliest war-ships of 
which we have any account 
are the Greek and Roman tri- 
remes, described on page 843 of the same 
volume. In the article on the Navy, 
XVII, 287, there is an interesting ac- 
count of the early war-ships used by the 
English. King Henry VIII is said to 
have laid the foundation of the British 
navy, and the largest ship of his time, 
the Great Harry, is described, XVII, 
289. Queen Elizabeth called together 
the greatest naval force that had ever 
been known, in order to oppose the In- 
vincible Armada of Spain. The story 
of the Armada and of its notable defeat 
is told in an interesting article on page 
476 of volume II. And in this connec- 
tion you will want to read about Sir Wal- 
ter Raleigh, XX, 274, about Sir Francis 
Drake, VII, 337, and about Sir John 



Ships 



Hawkins, XI, 478. This series may be 
supplemented by a reference to Robert 
Blake, the English admiral of the Com- 
monwealth, III, 697-98. 

But it is not expected that this course 
of reading will be exhaustive; so you 
may turn now to the life of Nelson, 
XVII, 330; to the battle of the Nile, I, 
53; and to the battle of Trafalgar, VI, 
131; and then to the life of Admiral 
Cochrane, Lord Dundonald, VII, 465-67. 

Next, read about our own naval he- 
roes: 

Paul Jones, XIII, 748. 

Commodore Decatur, XXIII, 795; also 
XXVI, 377. 

Commodore Perry, XXVIII, 389-90. 

Admiral Farragut, IX, 37. 

Admiral Dewey, XXVI, 407; XXVIII, 
14. 

Finally, by way of concluding this 
brief course of reading, you will find it 
profitable to learn all that you can 
about the United States Navy, XVII, 
287, and particularly our new navy, its 
wonderful armament and its estimated 
strength, XXVIII, 180-88. 

THE ROMANCE OF HISTORY. 

1. There are many things connected 
with the history of the Middle Ages 
which give to it the charm of romance. 
Tales of ^^ nevcr tire of reading about 
Knignt- the Knights of chivalry, XIV, 
^•""^ 112; about the Castles in 
which they lived, V, 171; about the 
Tournaments which they held, XXIII, 
520; and about the Crusades in which 
they engaged, VI, 549. 

Next, let us read the legend of Ro- 
land, the peerless knight of France, XX, 
641; the history of Richard the Lion- 
hearted, XX, 554, and particularly of his 
exploits in Palestine, VI, 555; the story 
of the English outlaw, Robin Hood, XX, 



24 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



stories 
of Rome 



621 ; the account of Godfrey of Bouillon, 
VI, 551; the history of the Children's 
Crusade, VI, 554; that of Edward the 
Black Prince, VII, 595; that of Bertrand 
Du Guesclin, VII, 447; and finally, the 
story of Chevalier Bayard, the knight 
"without fear and without reproach," 
III, 395. 

When you have mastered this course 
of reading, you will have a better knowl- 
edge of mediaeval life and manners and 
traditions than you could ever have ac- 
quired merely by studying an ordinary 
text-book at school, 

2. A second course — equally interest- 
ing, but somewhat harder, and therefore 

suited to older readers — may 
be taken from Roman History. 
Read the legendary story of 
Romulus, the reputed founder of the city, 
XX, 852; the mythical tale of the Hora- 
tii and Curiatii, XII, 169; the account of 
Horatius Codes, the hero who kept the 
bridge, VI, 92; of brave Regulus, who 
never broke his word, XX, 361; of Ca- 
millus, who saved the capitol of Rome 
from the Gauls, IV, 656; XX, 759; of 
Cincinnatus, called from his plough to 
defend his country, V, 685; of Cornelia, 
the mother of the Gracchi, VI, 373; of 
the Gracchi themselves, and of their 
services to their country, XI, 23; of Han- 
nibal, the Carthaginian hero, XI, 394; 
of his conqueror, Scipio Africanus, XXI, 
488-89; of Csesar, IV, 562, and Pompey, 
XIX, 465, and the downfall of the Ro- 
man republic, XX, 781. 

3. The third course is not historical, 
but mythical or legendary, and yet 



there is doubtless some sort of histor- 
ical basis for it. It relates to the story 
of the Trojan War, an event 
^*of Troy immortalized by Homer, the 
first of the poets, and made 
the subject of many a tale and poem 
and tragic drama from his time until 
now. As the basis and starting point 
of this course, read the Legend of Troy, 
XXIII, 619; then refer to the following 
articles in their order: 

Paris, whose perfidy was the cause of 
the war and the ultimate ruin of his 
country, XVIII, 301. 

Helen of Argos, the most beautiful 
woman in the world, XI, 561. 

Menelaus, the wronged husband of 
Helen, XVI, 14. 

Agamemnon, "king of men" and 
leader of the Grecian forces, I, 244. 

Odysseus, the wily hero, chief actor in 
Homer's Odyssey, XVII, 749. 

Penelope, wife of Odysseus, XVIII, 
501. 

Achilles, whose wrath and its conse- 
quences form the subject of the Iliad, 
1,89. 

Hector, the bravest and ablest of the 
Trojan chiefs, XI, 544. 

Ajax Telamon and Ajax Oileus, typi- 
cal heroes and leaders of the Greeks, I, 
383. 

And now, if you have become inter- 
ested in stories of this kind, turn to 
Chapter XX in this Guide and find there 
an extensive list of Greek legends and 
other romantic tales, all of which are 
narrated with more or less fulness in 
the pages of the Britannica. 



CHAPTER III 



Home Readings in Biography 

" Lives of great men all remind us, 
We can make our lives sublime, 
And, departing, leave behind us 
Footprints on the sands of time." 

— Longfellow. 



The biographies of great, and espe- 
cially of good men, will always be found 
instructive and useful to the young. 
Some of the best are almost 
^Biography ^qual to gospels. They teach 
right living, high thinking, and 
energetic action. They show what is 
in the power of each to accomplish for 
himself. No young man can rise from 
the perusal of such lives without feeling 
his whole mind and heart made better, 
and his best resolutions strengthened. 
They increase his self-reliance by forti- 
fying his views and elevating his aims 
in life. Sometimes, too, a young man 
discovers himself in a biography, as 
Correggio felt within him the risings 
of genius on contemplating the works 
of Michel Angelo. "And I, too, am 
a painter!" he exclaimed. Benjamin 
Franklin was accustomed to attribute 
his usefulness and eminence to his hav- 
ing in youth read a work of Cotton 
Mather's. And Samuel Drew avers that 
he framed his own life, and especially 
his business habits, on the model left 
on record by Benjamin Franklin. Thus, 
it is impossible to say where a good ex- 
ample may not reach, or where it will 
end, if indeed it have an end. 

But, to be more precise, it may be 
well to name a few biographies that 
will illustrate the more desirable ele- 
ments of character. For instance, the 
most striking lessons of 



diligence, application, and perse- 
verance 

are to be found in the lives of certain 
famous men about whom no one can 
afford to be ignorant. Read, therefore, 
the following biographical sketches : 

Benjamin Franklin, the stu- 
^gence^"*' <^ious printer's apprentice, who 
became the first philosopher 
of America, IX, 626. 

Washington Irving, the " father of 
American literature," XIII, 383. 

Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Welling- 
ton, the leader of the victorious armies 
at Waterloo, XXIV, 521. 

Michael Faraday, the distinguished 
scientist, IX, 27. 

James A. Garfield, the canal-boy, who 
became President of the United States, 
XXVII, 65. 

Richard Cobden, the English political 
economist and reformer, VI, 78. 

Hugh Miller, the stonecutter of Cro- 
marty, who attained distinction in both 
science and literature, XVI, 330. 

Sir Isaac Newton, the son of a small 
farmer, who through his industry be- 
came the foremost mathematician and 
astronomer of modern times, XVII, 449. 

Buffon, the French naturalist, who 
declared that "genius is patience," and 
whose rule was to turn every moment 
to account, IV, 397. 

Dr. Jenner, the discoverer of vaccina- 
tion, XIII, 633; XXIV, 28. 

(25) 



26 



GUIDE TO THE BKITANNICA 



Daguerre, the inventor of the da- 
guerreotype, and the real founder of 
the art of photography, VI, 671. 

Gainsborough, the son of a cloth- 
worker, who became one of the greatest 
of English painters, X, 15. 

General Grant, who rose from obscur- 
ity to be one of the most successful mili- 
tary leaders of modern times, XXVII. 
142. 

Then there have been men who, in 
the face of 

POVERTY, SICKNESS, OE DISASTER, 

won their way to success and distinc- 
tion. Read the story of their lives, and 
learn that, to the boy or man of deter- 
mination and will, there is no such 
thing as failure. Among scores of such 
men, it is necessary to mention only a 
few. 

Palissy, the potter, whose life reads 

jiea of like a romance, XVIII, 190. 

Determina- Galileo, who Continued his 

*^°° scientific pursuits even after 

blindness and old age had come upon 

him, X, 28. 

Elihu Burritt, "the learned black- 
smith," who, in the odd moments of his 
business, made himself the master of 
forty languages, XXV, 657. 

Thomas Carlyle, the son of a mason, 
who, by his own perseverance, became 
one of the most famous men of modern 
times, XXVI, 64. 

John Bunyan, who wrote the "Pil- 
grim's Progress" while in prison, and at 
the same time supported his family by 
making tag laces, IV, 470. 

Sir Richard Arkwright, who worked 
his way from a barber's shop to be the 
inventor of the spinning jenny and the 
founder of the cotton industry in Great 
Britain, II, 474. 

Samuel Drew, who rose from the shoe- 



Men of 

Energy 



maker's bench to be a distinguished es- 
sayist and preacher, VII, 405. 

Sir Humphry Davy, the distinguished 
chemist, who worked his way up from 
the position of a country apothecary, 
VI, 743. 

George Stephenson, the colliery en- 
gine-man, who invented the railway 
locomotive, XXII, 564. 

Matthew Boulton, " the father of Bir- 
mingham," IV, 157; XXIV, 435. 

Andrew Johnson, the tailor's appren- 
tice, who became President of the United 
States, XIII, 729. 

For examples of 

ENERGY, PROMPTITUDE, AND HARDIHOOD, 

look into the biographies of such men 
as the following: 

Napoleon Bonaparte, XVII, 
199. 
Peter the Great, XVIII, 712. 
Saladin, XVI, 610. 
Francisco Xavier, XXIV, 752. 
Lord Clive, VI, 9. 
Oliver Cromwell, VI, 528. 
Andrew Jackson, XIII, 543. 
Robert E. Lee. XIV, 400. 
Henry M. Stanley, XXIX, 149. 
For interesting illustrations of the 
manly qualities of 

PATIENCE AND FORTITUDE UNDER RE- 
VERSES, 

study the lives of such noted men as 

Christopher Columbus, VI, 
""f °/ 153. 

John Hampden, the English 
patriot, XI, 383. 

Dante, the great Italian poet, VI, 712. 
Sir Walter Raleigh, XX, 274. 
Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, 
XXVII, 517. 

James Watt, the inventor of the 
steam engine, XXIV, 433. 



HOME READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY 



27 



James Audubon, the famous Amer- 
ican ornithologist, III, 62, 

Sir Austen H. Layard, the discoverer 
and excavator of the ruins of Nineveh, 
XXVII, 560. 

William Harvey, the discoverer of the 
circulation of the blood, XI, 448. 

Claude Lorraine, the pastry-cook's ap- 
prentice, who became one of the great- 
est landscape painters of France, V, 711. 

John Flax man, the famous English 
sculptor, IX, 260. 

If you would like to read of pleasant 
instances of 

CHEEKFULNESS AND EQUANIMITY OF 
TEMPER 

under every variety of fortune, turn to 
the lives of men like 
jjgj^ of Dr. Samuel Johnson, XIII, 730. 
Cheer- Oliver Goldsmith, X, 676. 
fulness Sydney Smith, XXII, 186. 
Lord Palmerston, XVIII, 197. 
Abraham Lincoln, XIV, 665. 
Very interesting and valuable also 
are those lessons of 

INTEGRITY AND UPRIGHTNESS OF PRIN- 
CIPLE 

that are shown in the careers of 

Diogenes, the Greek philoso- 

"reU P''^'-' V"' 214, 

Edmund Burke, the Anglo- 
Irish orator, IV, 481. 

Dr. Thomas Arnold, head master of 
the school at Rugby, II, 547. 

Sir Thomas More, the English states- 
man, XVI, 842. 

John Howard, the philanthropist, XII, 
333. 

William Chambers, the Scottish pub- 
lisher, V, 330. 

Loyola, the founder of the society of 
Jesuits, XV, 32. 

William Wilberforce, the opponent of 
the slave trade, XXIV, 596. 



" Stonewall " Jackson, the Confeder- 
ate general, XIII, 544. 

If you would learn of the rewards 
which follow 

METHOD, PRECISION, AND PAINSTAKING, 

read the biographies of 

Nicolas Poussin, the French 
^^"^ °^ . painter, XIX, 669. 

Precision •'■ 

Michel Angelo, the great 
Italian artist, XVI, 237. 

Baron Cuvier, the French naturalist, 
VI, 653. 

Titian, the Italian painter, XXIII, 44L 

William Wordsworth, the poet of na- 
ture, XXIV, 703. 

Lord Brougham, lord chancellor of 
England, IV, 335. 

Alexander Pope, XIX, 496. 

William Cecil, Lord Burghley, Queen 
Elizabeth's prime minister, V, 246. 

Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield, 
VIII, 328 ; XXV, 395. 

And for the supreme lessons of purity 
of life and 

NOBILITY OF MOTIVE 

examine the lives of such men as 
jignof Abraham Lincoln, XIV, 665. 
Noble General Lafayette, XIV, 202. 
Motives William Lloyd Garrison, X, 78. 
Horace Greeley, XI, 143. 
John G. Whittier, XXIX, 545. 
and other illustrious persons of our own 
and foreign lands. 

Some we have here named might be 
catalogued, indeed, as types of every 
excellence that should adorn human 
character. Such are our own Washing- 
ton and Benjamin Franklin ; but even 
the youngest student will see how hard 
it is to attempt a biographical classifica- 
tion on these lines. 

Most boys are ambitious. They wish 
to grow up to become men of influence 



28 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Musicians 



and renown. Many of them lose this 
ambition because they are unwilling to 
wait long enough, work hard enough, 
and be suflBciently patient in well- 
doing. 

" The heights by great men reached and kept 
Were not attained by sudden flight." 

And yet there have been many great 
men who displayed their abilities at a 
very early age. Perhaps you would like 
to read about some of these 

GEEAT YOUNG MEN. 

Handel composed a set of sonatas 
when he was ten years old, XI, 387. 

Haydn composed a mass at 
thirteen, XI, 481-83. 

Mozart composed his first opera at 
twelve, XVII, 14. 

Beethoven's music was beaten into 
him, but he composed three sonatas 
when thirteen, III, 435. 

Cherubini composed a mass at thir- 
teen, V, 510. 

Paganini was a great violinist at 
eight, XVIII, 138. 

Charles Wesley, the great hymn 
writer, played the harpsichord when 
he was a babe, XXIV, 532. 

Schubert, the greatest of song-writers, 
began to compose at the age of thir- 
teen, and died when only thirty-one, 
XXI, 479. 

Michel Angelo finished his great 
marble statue of " David " before he 
was twenty, XVI, 237. 

Kaphael was an eminent painter at 
seventeen, XX, 286. 

Canova modeled a lion out 
of butter when only four years 
old, V, 22. 

Sir Edwin Landseer painted one of 
his greatest pictures at sixteen, XIV, 
280. 



Artists 



Authors 



Cervantes had written several ro- 
mances before he was twenty, V, 302. 

Goethe could write in five languages 
when he was eight, X, 643. 

Victor Hugo wrote his first tragedy 
when fifteen years old, IX, 594. 

Alexander Pope wrote his Pastorals 
when only sixteen, XIX, 496. 
Chatterton, who died before 
he was eighteen, was already a great 
poet, V, 385. 

Burns began to rhyme at sixteen, IV, 
505. 

Thomas Moore wrote verses at thir- 
teen, XVL 831. 

Shelley published Queen Mah when 
eighteen, XXI, 826. 

Southey wrote Joan of Arc when nine- 
teen, XXII, 303. 

Mrs. Browning wrote poems at ten, 
IV, 351. 

Tennyson wrote his first volume of 
poems before he was eighteen, XXIX, 
251. 

Sir Isaac Newton displayed wonderful 
ability when a mere child, XVII, 449. 

Blaise Pascal wrote a treatise 
Phiioso- ^^ Conic Sections when he was 

pners 

sixteen, XVIII, 339. 

Grotius wrote Latin verses when he 
was eight, XI, 193. 

Haller composed a Chaldee grammar 
at twelve, XI, 354. 

Lord Bacon planned his Novum Orga- 
nmn before he was sixteen, III, 173. 

Sir Christopher Wren invented an 
astronomical instrument at thirteen, 
XXIV, 724. 

William Pitt, the younger, entered 
Parliament when he was twenty-one, 
XIX, 143. 

These were some of the great young 
men of modern times. Ancient history 
furnishes us with other examples of 
men to whom 



HOME READINGS IN SCIENCE 



29 



SUCCESS CAME EARLY IN LIFE : 

Themistocles, who won his greatest 
victory at the age of thirty, XXIII, 269. 
Alexander the Great, who 
"""orretc." died at thirty-one, I, 420. 

Pompey, who was a success- 
ful Roman general at twenty-three, 
XIX, 465. 

Hannibal, who, when only twenty- 
six, was made sole commander of the 
Carthaginian army, XI, 394. 

Charlemagne, who was master of 
France and Germany at thirty, V, 
349. 

Marshal Saxe, who began his military 
career at twelve, XXI, 361. 



Charles XII of Sweden, who became 
king at the age of fifteen, V, 364. 

William Pitt, the younger, who be- 
came premier at the age of twenty-four, 
XIX, 143. 

This list might be easily extended; 
but here is reading enough for several 
winter evenings. And when you have 
finished it, you will be at no loss to 
determine whether these men attained 
distinction at a single bound or whether 
they did not rather win by hard and 
patient labor, begun while they were 
very young. Greatness comes to no 
man simply because he wishes it. It 
is the reward of determined effort. 



CHAPTER IV 
Home Readings in Science 

" To neglect all the abiding parts of knowledge for the sake of 
the evanescent parts is really to know nothing worth knowing." 

— Frederic Harrison. 



Natural 
History 



The subject of history is not equally 
attractive to all young people. There 
are some who would prefer to 
read of the great world of na- 
ture, and for these it would be 
easy to name very many Britannica ar- 
ticles which would prove interesting 
and instructive. Now, here is a course 
of readings in natural history, arranged 
in twelve divisions, each of which can 
be easily completed in a month. You 
will find some of the articles very in- 
teresting indeed, while others, perhaps, 
will seem rather hard and at first not 
so easy to understand. But if you be- 
gin on this course and hold to it for a 
year, you will find not only that you 
have gained a great deal of information, 
but that the reading of these various 



articles has increased your capacity for 
deriving the highest pleasure from the 
perusal of books. 

readings in natural history. 
I. mammals. 

The Elephant, VIII, 116. 

The Giraffe, X, 552. 

The Beaver and its habits, III, 410. 

Monkeys, II, 130. 

The Tiger, XXIII, 411. 

The Bear, III, 398. 

The Bison, III, 688. 

The Wolf, XXIV, 662-63; XV, 444. 

II. CURIOUS BIRDS. 

The Albatross, the famous bird of the 
South Seas, I, 398. 



30 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



The Dodo, a strange bird now no 
longer in existence, VII, 278. 

The Cormorant, how it is taught to 
catch fish, VI, 361. 

The Dove, VII, 328. 

Migration of Birds, III, 662. 

The Nightingale, XVII, 511. 

The Stork, XXII, 605. 

III. PISHES. 

The Shark, XXI, 810. 

The Swordfish, XXII, 842. 

Mackerel, XV, 160. 

Codfish, VI, 95. 

Cuttlefish, VI, 648. Goldfish, X, 675. 

IV. REPTILES, 

Special article, XX, 444. 
Rattlesnake, XX, 305. 
Cobra, VI, 83. Anaconda, I, 691. 
Boa Constrictor, III, 731. 
Tortoise, XXIII, 484 (illustrated). 
Crocodile, VI, 524. Alligator, I, 515. 
The Chameleon, V, 331. 

V. INSECTS. 

Habits of Ants, II, 84 a. 

Slaveholding Ants, II, 86. 

White Ants of S. America, II, 88 a. 

Bees and their Habits, III, 417 b." ' 

An interesting description of Spiders, 
II, 261. 

The Mantis, the curious "subject of 
many widespread legends," XV, 510. 

VI. EXTINCT ANIMALS. 

The Mammoth (illustrated), XV, 454. 
The Megatherium (illustrated), XV, 
837. 
The Plesiosaurus, XIX, 232. 
The Pterodactyl, XX, 90. 

VII. FABLED ANIMALS. 

The Dragon, VII, 333. 
The Cockatrice, VI, 90. 



The Griffin, XI, 174. 
The Chimsera, V, 544. 
The Phoenix, XVIII, 823. 
The Sphinx, XXII, 413. 
The Centaur, V, 295. 
The Satyr, XXI, 336. 
The Roc, XX, 626. 

VIII. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

History of the Horse, XII, 176. 

The Arabian Horse, II, 209. 

The Camel, IV, 650. 

Dogs (an illustrated article), VII, 281. 

Cats, V, 178. 

The Cow, I, 346. 

IX. SEA ANIMALS. 

Life in the Ocean, VII, 240-244. 
Whales and whale fishing, XXIV, 551; 
XV, 395. 
Seals and seal fishing, XXI, 607. 
The Walrus (illustrated), XXIV, 357. 
The Dolphin, VII, 300. 
Corals, VI, 326. 

X. COMMON INSECTS. 

The Housefly, XII, 330. 
The Humble-bee, XII, 856. 
Beetles, VI, 114. 
Gnats, X, 624. 
Mosquitoes, XVI, 894. 
Butterflies, IV, 527. 

XI. BARNYARD FOWLS. 

Chickens, IX, 434. 
Turkeys, XXIII, 699. 
Geese, X, 691. 
Ducks, VII, 436. 
Pigeons, XIX, 93. 
Eggs of Birds, III, 669. 

XII. MISCELLANEOUS. 

Special article on birds, III, 604. 
Special article on insects, XIII, 147. 
Animals of Asia, II, 607. 



GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES 



31 



Animals of Africa, I, 231. 

Animals of America, I, 598, 

Article on Ampfhibia, I, 657. 

Of course this list might have been 
made very much longer, for the Britan- 
nica contains hundreds of such articles ; 



but the above will be sufficient to start 
with. As you proceed with your read- 
ing, other subjects will naturally suggest 
themselves, which you will be able to 
find from the Index volume without any 
further help from the Guide. 



CHAPTER V 

Games, Sports, and Pastimes 

■ Up I up ! my friend, and quit your books, 

Or surely you'll grow double : 
Up I up ! my friend, and clear your looks ; 

Why all this toil and trouble ? " — Wordsworth. 



Work and 
Play 



This would be but a dull world if 
everybody worked all the time, and 
never took any recreation. 
And the Encyclopedia Britan- 
nica would be a dull book if 
it were filled entirely with information 
about the different branches of scien- 
tific knowledge, and said nothing about 
the games, sports, and pastimes which 
amuse our leisure hours and add to the 
enjoyableness of life. But from these 
volumes you can learn how to play as 
well as how to work. Every game of 
any importance, every pastime that is 
of general interest, receives its proper 
notice. 

OUTDOOR GAMES. 

The game of ball has been a favorite 
pastime of all ages and nations. Read 
the article on that subject, XXV, 334. 

Do you want to know all about base- 
ball, its history, the rules which govern 
the game, etc.? Turn to vol- 
^u ° ume III, page 350, and you will 
find there a brief but compre- 
hensive article on that subject, which 



every boy will want to study ; and this 
is continued in a supplementary article, 
XXV, 377, which gives a complete history 
of the game since its first introduction 
in 1857 to the present time. In this lat- 
ter article will be found the rules which 
govern its playing in America. 

The English national game of cricket 
is treated with equal fulness in VI, 511. 
See also William G. Grace, XXVII, 134. 
The leading articles on both cricket and 
baseball contain not only the rules most 
generally recognized for the govern- 
ment of the games, but carefully drawn 
diagrams of the fields, and full direc- 
tions for playing. 

Next to baseball, football claims the 
greatest attention in this country. In- 
deed, it would be difficult to say which 
is the leading favorite. The article on 
FOOTBALL, XXVI, 674-77, contains the 
very latest rules regulating this excit- 
ing game. A history and general notice 
of football as it was formerly played 
may be found in IX, 321. 

Archery is the subject of an ex- 
tremely interesting article, II, 325. 



'32 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



From that article you may learn not 

only the history of bows and arrows, 

but how to make them (II, 

° Games ^^^)' ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^"^^^ which 

govern the popular pastime of 
archery (11, 330). 

Other outdoor games of almost every 
kind are described with like complete- 
ness: 

Golf, X, 680. 

Lacrosse, XIV, 195. 

Bowls, IV, 162. 

Croquet, VI, 537 b. 

Quoits, XX, 195. 

Curling, VI, 629. 

Rackets, XX, 216. 

Polo, XIX, 417. 

Tennis, XXIII, 195. 

Lawn Tennis, XXIII, 198-99. 

Badminton, III, 196. 

INDOOK GAMES. 

All kinds of indoor games are also de- 
scribed, together with minute directions 
for playing them. The article 
^^Garnes ^^ CHESS, V, 514, is interesting 
for its historical information. 
The modern changes of style in playing 
chess are noted in XXVI, 141. The article 
on DRAUGHTS (commouly known in this 
country as checkers), VII, 384, and that 
on BACKGAMMON, III, 170, are equally en- 
tertaining and instructive. Then there 
are the various games at cards, all of 
which are described in the Britannica. 

Casino, XXVI, 80. 

Bezique, HI, 539. 

Cribbage, VI, 509. 

Ecarte, VII, 536. 

Euchre, VIII, 574. 

Loo, XV, 3. 

Napoleon, XVII, 235. 

Piquet, XIX, 122. 

Poker, XIX, 294. 

Whist, XXIV, 573. 



Fishing 



Among other indoor pastimes we may 
mention Riddles, XX, 564. 

Legerdemain, or sleight of hand, XIV, 
415; XV, 207. 

Billiards, III, 583-86. 

Bagatelle, HI, 198. 

Ten-pins, IV, 164.'" 

See amusements in this Guide, p. 235. 

SPORTS. 

Few sports are more attractive to 
boys and men than fishing; and to all 
who are partial to this kind of 
amusement, the article on an- 
gling. II, 30, will prove both interesting 
and instructive. It contains a great 
deal of information about fish and the 
art of taking them wath hooks. The life 
of quaint old Izaak Walton, the most 
famous of anglers, should be read in 
this connection, XXIV, 362. 

Most boys, even though they are de- 
barred from such sports themselves, like 
to read about hunting; and so they will 
derive much pleasure from the general 
article on that subject, XII, 408. Here, 
too, they may learn about the care of 
foxhounds, XII, 328; about fox- 
hunting, XII, 410; and about 
horsemanship in the chase, XII, 199. 
There is more of the same kind of read- 
ing in VII, 285, 287, where a good deal 
of information is given about sports- 
men's dogs, such as the pointer, the 
setter, and the retriever. 

Closely related to these sports are the 
pleasant pastimes of rowing and sailing 
on the water. Several articles now 
claim our attention. As for rowing, 
read what is said further on that sub- 
ject in XXI, 35. An account of intercol- 
legiate boat-racing is given in XXVIII, 
626. The article on canoeing, IV, 716, 
is full of practical information. Row- 
boats are described further over, in XXI, 
864. The articles on yachting, XXIV, 



Hunting 



GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES 



33 



758-61, and yacht-building, XXIX, 614, 
are very complete, and are full of his- 
torical interest. Practical di- 

Rowing, etc. , . » . . , 

rections tor swimming and 
diving are given in XXII, 806, and 
these will repay you for all the time 
spent in their study. Skating, XXII, 
112, is another instructive and inter- 
esting article. 

Everybody, nowadays, rides a bicycle; 
and so everybody will want to read its 
history. III, 575, A complete descrip- 
tion of bicycle manufacture in the 
United States may be found in XXV, 
465-67. The laws regarding bicycles 
and bicycle riders are noticed in XXV, 
468. Then in XXVII, 561, there is a 
brief history of the organization called 
the League of American Wheelmen, 
which every bicycler will read. What 
bicycles have done for good roads is re- 
lated in XXVIII, 599. 

ATHLETIC SPORTS, ETC. 

While learning about the games and 
sports of our own times it is but natural 
that we should wish to know 
^\nd^Rome ^^^ ^^® people of former ages 
amused themselves, how they 
trained their bodies, and cultivated 
their strength. Here then, to begin 
with, are a few of the many articles 
or parts of articles relating to this 
subject : 

Greek games, X, 57; Olympian games, 
XXVIII, 287. The revival of these sports 
at Athens in the summer of 1896 lends 
much additional interest to the chap- 
ters describing them. Read then the 
following additional references to the 
Olympian games, V, 617; VIII, 131; XI, 
85; XVII, 787. 

Athletse, III, 12. 

Gymnasium, XI, 310. 

Roman games, X, 59. 
3 



Gladiatorial games, X, 563. 

Secular games at Rome, XXI, 649. 

The Amphitheatre, I, 679; XX, 851. 

The Colosseum, II, 367. 

Roman circus, V, 691; XX, 849. 

Chariot races, X, 58. 

Wrestling, X, 58. 

In the Middle Ages the most popular 
of all amusements were those connected 
with tournaments, the history of which 
is pleasantly narrated in XXIII, 520. The 
knights who engaged in these contests 
at arms often found amusement of a 
lighter character in following the chase 
in the manner described in 
^TraSng ™' ^09. The rearing and 
training of hawks for hunting 
purposes was called /a /cow r?/, and this is 
the subject of an interesting article in 
IX, 7-12. 

And now, approaching our own times, 
read the two articles on Athletic Sports, 
III, 12, and XXV, 285. Both are full of 
valuable information, especially regard- 
ing physical culture. They are so full 
and exhaustive that some of the young- 
est readers may not care to read them 
through; and yet it will pay to get as 
many useful hints and suggestions from 
them as you can. 

The article on Athletic Training and 
Apparatus, in the Supplements, pre- 
sentsthe very latest facts and the opin- 
ions of the best authorities on this 
subject. 

The article on Gymnastics, XI, 311, 
presents some interesting statements 
with reference to the training of the 
body by systematic exercises. The best 
methods of dieting while attempting 
to improve one's strength by physical 
training are adequately described in 
VII, 174. 

See, now. Calisthenics, XXVI, 20, and 
Delsarte System, XXVI, 391. 



PART II 



THE STUDENT 



CHAPTER VI 



Three Courses of Reading in History 

" History is philosoptiy teaching by examples." — SoUngbrohe. 



' The entire history of man, from the 
earliest times to the present, will be 
found in the EncyclopcEdia Britannica. 
Many of the articles on historical sub- 
jects are chiefly valuable for purposes 
of reference, while others are ex- 
tremely interesting when read in 
course, and if taken up and studied 
systematically will give to the student 
a mastery of the subject which he 
could not well acquire from any simi- 
lar work. 

It is proposed in this chapter to in- 
dicate three distinct courses of read- 
ing, any one of which can be pursued 
independently of the others. In lay- 
ing out these courses the aim has 
been to select from the great abun- 
dance of material in the Britannica 
such portions as are essential to an 
understanding of the march of events, 
and to pass lightly over those periods 
of history which have been unprolific 
of events of general and permanent 
interest. 

I. AMERICAN HISTORY. 

The article America, I, 587, contains 
a section of twenty pages devoted to 
ancient America. This will 
America sci've as an excellent introduc- 
tion to the course of study 
upon which we have entered. Here 
you will find a full account of the abo- 
rigines, page 602; their languages, page 
604; their tribal organization, page 606; 
the ancient remains of the Mississippi 



valley and other localities, page 607; an 
account of the native civilization, page 
609; and a very interesting resume of 
the curious traditional history of Cen- 
tral America. In the articles Mexico, 
XVI, 214, and Yucatan, XXIV, 795, there 
is a still fuller exposition of this subject. 
In the article Peru, XVIII, 682, the re- 
markable civilization of the country of 
the Yncas (Incas) is described in a man- 
ner both pleasing and instructive. 

It is still, in certain respects, a de- 
bated point as to who was the real dis- 
coverer of America. In the 
""^nvi"; article America, I, 619, a full 

covery ' ' ' 

account is given of the voy- 
ages of the Northmen to the shores of 
North America, and following this we 
have the story of Columbus and his dis- 
coveries. Turn now to the biography 
of Columbus, VI, 153. Read, also, the 
life of Sebastian Cabot, IV, 552, and that 
of Amerigo Vespucci, XXIV, 208, who, 
by a singular fortune, gave his name to 
the New World. The conquest of Mex- 
ico is well told in the article Cortes, 
VI, 390, and that of Peru in the article 
PiZARRO, XIX, 169. 

THE UNITED STATES. 

Begin with the article United States, 
XXIII, 777. The first part of this arti- 
cle, containing sixty pages 
^^v^ews embraces a history of our coun- 
try which is hot only more 
complete, but far more readable than 
most of the school text-books on this 

(37) 



38 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Virginia 



subject. To add to the value of the ar- 
ticle, it is illustrated with several maps: 

1. A map of the English colonies. 

2. A map showing the territorial 
growth of the United States from 1776 
to 1887. 

3. A map of the United States cor- 
rected to date. 

A brief analysis of this article will 
show us what additional subjects may 
be brought in by way of collateral read- 
ing. 

In connection with the history of 
Virginia, XXIV, 274, read the 
following articles or parts of 
articles: 

Sir Walter Raleigh, XX, 274. 

John Smith, XXII, 183. 

History of Tobacco, XXIIl, 451 (one 
column). 

Introduction of Slavery into America, 

XXII, 146, beginning with "Spanish 
Colonies," second column, and ending at 
the bottom of page 147. 

In connection with New England, 

XXIII, 780, read about the Pur- 

""coSs itans, VIII, 305-11, 337-38; the 

Pilgrim Fathers, XXVIII, 427; 

and Roger Williams, XXIV, 618. 

In connection with Pennsylvania, 

XXIII, 782, read about William Penn, 
XVIII, 502. 

With the Revolutionary Wa-r, XXIII, 
784, we reach the period of those great 
men whom we justly style 
" the fathers." Let us read 
the biographical sketches of a 
few of these makers of the nation: 

George Washington, XXIV, 408. 

Patrick Henry, XI, 602. 

Thomas Jefferson, XIII, 624. 

John Adams, I, 129. 

James Madison, XV, 183. 

James Monroe, XVI, 787. 

Alexander Hamilton, XI, 368. 



The 
Kevolution 



Slavery 



These articles will help us to under- 
stand not only the period of the Revo- 
lution, but the equally important periods 
which followed — the formation of the 
Federal Constitution, XXIII, 786, and 
the beginnings of the government under 
the Constitution, XXIII, 786-87. 

Nullification, XXIII, 800. With this 
read Andrew Jackson, XIII, 543, and 
John C. Calhoun, IV, 606. 

Opposition to Slavery, XXIII, 804. 
William Lloyd Garrison, X, 78. History 
of Slavery, XXII, beginning at 
the middle of first column, 
page 147 and continuing to the top of 
the first column, page 151. Henry Clay, 
V, 714; Daniel Webster, XXIV, 498; 
Stephen A. Douglas, VII, 326. 

Entering now upon the period of the 
Civil War and the reconstruction which 
followed it, XXIII, 816-21, we may read, 
for additional information, the articles 
Abraham Lincoln, XIV, 665, U. S. Grant, 
XXVII, 142, Jefferson Davis, XXVI, 365, 
and Robert E. Lee, XIV, 400. 

Read also the article on the Confed- 
erate States of America, XXVI, 251. 

Before concluding this course of read- 
ing, it will be well to notice another 
Supple- ^®^y important article,or rather 
mentary scries of articles, relating to the 
Chapters jj^g^Qj-y Qf q^j. country. Among 

the articles comprising the American 
supplements to the Britannica there are 
forty-one pages of matter, XXIX, 357-99, 
which should be read, and some of it 
studied thoroughly. The facts there 
given are of interest and importance to 
every American citizen. Here are the 
headings of some of the sections: 

The admission of the several States, 
XXIX, p. 357. 

Representatives in Congress, p. 358. 

Population, 12th Census (1900), p. 360. 

Presidential elections, p. 361. 



THREE COURSES OF READING IN HISTORY 



39 



Center of Population, p. 362. 
Recent History of the U. S., p. 369. 
The Venezuelan Imbroglio, p. 378. 
The War with Spain, p. 382. 
The "Boxer" Rising in China, p. 397 ; 
also XXVI, 155. 

II. ANCIENT HISTOEY. 

In indicating the following course 
of reading, an attempt will be made 
to cover all the more important 
periods of ancient history, and at the 
same time not to mark out more than 
can be mastered within a reasonable 
length of time. It is possible that the 
reader will enlarge it at many points 
by reading entire articles, of which 
only parts are here indicated ; but, 
whether he does this or not, he should 
find himself at the end of 
° Countries ^^^ course possessed of a good 
general knowledge of ancient 
history, of its leading characters, and 
its more interesting scenes and inci- 
dents. 

Egypt. A long and very scholarly 
article on this country is contained in 
the seventh volume of the Britannica. 
Read the following sections : 

Description of Egypt, page 608; its 
ancient inhabitants, page 618; its 
chronology, page 631; the Egyptian 
dynasties, page 633; the twelfth dy- 
nasty, page 636; the accession of 
Ptolemy I, page 645. 

Assyria and Babylonia. Read the 
entire article on these countries. III, 
159. Read also the description of 
Babylon, III, 157, and of Nineveh, 
XVII, 525; also, the account of Jonah, 
XIII, 747, and that of Berosus, III, 524. 

Phoenicia. Read the greater part of 
the article under this heading, and 
especially the following sections: De- 
scription of Phoenicia, XVIII, 815; 



origin of the Phoenicians, page 816; 
navigation, trades, and colonies, pages 
818-20. Read also the articles Tyre, 
XXIII, 757, Sidon, XXII, 41, and Car- 
thage, V, 140-43. 

Persia. In volume XVIII of the 
Britannica, one hundred pages are de- 
voted to Persia. The history of ancient 
Persia extends from page 573 to page 
627. If your time is limited, begin with 
the section entitled Medo-Persian Em- 
pire, page 573; read the history of 
Cyrus, page 576, and of his successors, 
to the accession of Artaxerxes, page 
585. The account of the expedition 
against Greece may be deferred until 
its proper place is reached in Greek his- 
tory. 

Greece. With the history of this 
country it is necessary to spend much 
more time. Begin by reading 
the whole of Section I, "Greek 
History to the Death of Alexander the 
Great," in volume XI, pages 81-95. For 
collateral reading, see the following 
articles: Troy, XXIII, 614-20; Lycur- 
gus, XV, 96; Sparta, XXII, 383; Greek 
Games, X, 57. While studying the his- 
tory of Attica, XI,- 86, refer to the article 
Athens, III, 3, and read with particular 
care the descriptiou of that city given 
by Pausanias, III, 10. Solon's account 
of his own work, XI, 87, is supplemented 
by a much fuller account in the twenty- 
second volume of the Britannica, page 
267. Here, too, it will be well to read 
the biography of Pisistratus, XIX, 139. 
The events which followed the historic 
battle of Marathon, XI, 89, brought 
prominently forward the great rival 
statesmen, Aristides, II, 445, and The- 
mistocles, XXIII, 269. Then follows the 
period of Athenian supremacy, XI, 90; 
and in connection with it the article on 
Pericles, XVIII, 539, should be read. 



40 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



With the Theban supremacy, read 
Epaminondas, VIII, 405; and, with the 
decay of Greek civic life XI, 93, study 
the excellent article on Demosthenes, 
VII, 59. 

Turn now to the article Macedonian 
Empire, XV, 139, and read down to the 
account of the departure of Alexander 
on his great expedition against Persia. 
From this point continue the story with 
the article Alexander the Great, I, 425. 
The death of Alexander, as you will 
learn, was the signal for the breaking 
up of his empire. Ptolemy, one of his 
generals, established himself in Egypt, 
VII, 645; Seleucus, another general, 
founded a new Persian empire, with its 
capital at Seleucia, on the Tigris, XVIII, 
598; and Antipater, who had been made 
regent of Macedonia, maintained the 
integrity of Greece, XV, 142. We need 
not follow the history of these frag- 
ments of Alexander's great empire — 
their wars with one another, and their 
internal dissensions. A new empire 
was about to arise which would over- 
power them all. 

Rome. The article under this heading, 
XX, 750-860, embraces a complete and 
very interesting survey of the 
""msTory history of the Eternal City 
from its foundation in legend- 
ary times to the year 1870. Read, as a 
beginning, the first sixteen pages of the 
article,to the section entitled " Rome and 
the Mediterranean States." Numerous 
collateral references present themselves, 
but if your time is limited they may be 
omitted, and the reading of the principal 
article may be continued. The story 
becomes very interesting now, and you 
need not be told to read it carefully. 
The second Punic War brings to our 
notice Hannibal, XI, 394, and the elder 
Scipio, XXI, 488. In connection with 



the third Punic War we shall read of 
the younger Scipio, XXI, 489, and of 
Cato the Censor, V, 208. Other collat- 
eral readings will include Marius, XV, 
556; Sulla, XXII, 665; Cicero, V, 673; 
Catiline, V, 207; Pompey, XIX, 465; and 
Julius Csesar, IV, 562. 

These readings ought to give you a 
very complete knowledge of the history 
of Rome in the palmy and heroic days of 
the republic, as well as in the period of 
that republic's degeneracy. 

The story of the Empire begins on 
page 787 of the twentieth volume; it 
ends with the downfall of the Western 
Empire (a. d. 476), as described on page 
799. Let us, however, continue our read- 
ing with the Eastern Empire, until it, 
too, is ended with the fall of Constanti- 
nople, A. D. 1453. We shall find this part 
of the story in the article Greece, XI, 
99-108. On the thread of these two 
articles the following biographies, each 
in its proper place, may be strung: 

Augustus, III, 69; Tiberius, XXIII, 
356; Nero, XVII, 357; Trajan, XXIII, 534; 
Hadrian, XI, 324; Marcus Aurelius, III, 
75; Commodus, VI, 185; Constantine, 
VI, 266; Justinian I, XIII, 801. 

For further collateral reading, add the 
following articles: Goths, X, 752; Alaric, 
I, 392; Vandals, XXIV, 64; Genseric, X, 
143; Huns, XII, 396; Attila, III, 54. 

This course of reading embraces in 
the aggregate about 150 pages of the 
Britannica. By reading an hour 
or so regularly every evening, 
one may complete it in a short time; 
and there is no doubt but that the reader 
will obtain from it a far more satisfac- 
tory view of ancient history than can 
be gained from any of the so-called 
"Universal Histories." The reason is 
obvious. Here the subject is presented 
as in a painting, with a distinct back- 



Conclusion 



THREE COURSES OF READING IN HISTORY 



41 



ground, and the foreground appropri- 
ately filled with lifelike figures. It is 
no mere catalogue of events that you 
have been studying; it is history itself. 

III. MODERN HISTORY. 

The Mohammedan Empire. The first 

part of the article, Mohammedanism, 

XVI, 568, relates the story of 

The Arab Mohammed and the first four 

Conquest 

caliphs. Read this part care- 
fully. Then proceed to the second part, 
XVI, 588, v^hich gives an account of 
Moslem conquest and dominion down 
to the capture of Bagdad by Jenghis 
Khan, a. d. 1258. The most important 
event for us during this latter period is 
the conquest of Spain, a full account 
of which may be found in the article 
Spain, XXII, 326-30. 

Continental Eiirope from a. d. 476 to 
A. D. 1453. The period of ten centuries 
which intervened between the fall of 
the Western Empire and the capture of 
Constantinople by the Turks may be 
briefly studied. The Franks invade 
Gaul, IX, 466; the Goths and Lombards 

establish themselves in Italy, 
'"Agfs*'*''' XIII, 478; the Visigoths gain 

control of Spain, XXII, 323; a 
new empire is established by Charle- 
magne, V, 349. This brings us to the 
year 814. From this point to the close 
of the period only a few events need be 
noticed. The rise of the feudal mon- 
archy in France, IX, 473; the Hapsburg 
dynasty, X, 443, and III, 108; the house 
of Brandenburg in Germany, XX, 9. 
Now read the account of the Hundred 
Years' War between France and Eng- 
land, IX, 481-86. This prepares us for 
the study of the article on Feudalism, 
IX, 105, and the various notices of Chiv- 
alry indicated in the Index volume, 
page 194. See Dark Ages, XXVI, 355. 



Modern 
Europe 



The chief events of this period are 
connected with the Crusades, which are 
the subject of an interesting and im- 
portant article, VI, 549. In connection 
with the above-named articles there is 
room for a good deal of collateral read- 
ing. Study the following articles: 

Venice, XXIV, 153; Florence, IX, 
289; Medici, XV, 794; Naples, XVII, 
194; Hanseatic League, XI, 401; and 
a part of the article on commerce, VI, 
178-180. 

From A. D. 1453 to the French Revolu- 
tion. Among the important events of 
this period were the following: 

The discovery of America, X, 159-71. 

The invention of printing, XXIII, 730. 
The circumnavigation of the 
globe; see Magellan, XV, 198. 
The Reformation, XX, 332. 

The invention of the steam engine, 
XXII, 490. 

The study of the history of this period 
may begin with the Renaissance, XX, 
392. In connection with this study, re- 
fer to the historical portion of each of 
the following articles: 

Austria, III, 108-15; Prussia, XX, 
5-15; Holland, XII, 72-86; France, IX, 
487-525. 

See also Italy, XIII, 492; Spain, XXII, 
353. 

The portions of this history which 
will claim our chief attention are: The 
career of Charles V, V, 358; the struggle 
of the Netherlands with Spain, XII, 77- 
80; The Thirty Years' War, III, 109. In 
connection with these, read: Wallen- 
stein, XXIV, 349; Gustavus Adolphus, 
XI, 298; Louis XIV, IX, 503-14; Philip 
II of Spain, XVIII, 757; Catherine de Me- 
dici, V, 205; Peter the Great, XVIII, 712; 
Charles XII of Sweden, V, 364; Fred- 
erick the Great, IX, 646; and Catherine 
II of Russia, V, 203. 



42 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



From the French Revolution to the Pres- 
ent Time. The leading article for the 
study of this period is that on France 
from page 525 to page 554, vol- 
"^ c^ent^r '^ ume IX. Here you may read 
(1) of the Revolution, page 525; 
(2) of the Republic, page 532; (3) of the 
Empire, page 542; (4) of the subsequent 
history of France to the close of the 
presidency of M. Grevy. A supplement- 
ary article, XXVII, 19, brings the history 
of France down to date. In connection 
with the above, read the following bio- 
graphical sketches: Mirabeau, XVI, 516; 
Marie Antoinette, XV, 547; Robespierre, 
XX, 617; Danton, VI, 718; Marat, XV, 
533; Dreyfus Case, XXVI, 453-55. 

The history of Napoleon fills thirty- 
seven pages of the Britannica, XVII, 199. 
In connection with this article, read the 
following: Josephine, XIII, 761; Talley- 
rand, XXIII, 35; Wellington, XXIV, 521. 

These articles alone will give us the 
best part of the political history of Con- 
tinental Europe down to the year 1815. 
The more imiportant events which have 
since occurred outside of France may 
then be read: 

The liberation of Greece, XI, 111. 

The Crimean war, XXI, 110. 

The Independence of Italy, XIII, 495. 

The Austro-Prussian war, X, 452. 

The Franco-Prussian war, X, 453. 

And now you will no longer need the 
help of the Guide. Almost any in- 
formation that you may desire can be 
found by turning to the proper heading 
in the Britannica as indicated in the 
Index volume. 

For events that have occurred since 
1879, as well as for the biographies of 
men who were living at that time, it 
is always well to consult the later 
volumes. For example, there is no 
separate article on Bismarck in the 



Early 
Britain 



main portion of the Britannica; but in 
Volume XXV, page 485, there is a com- 
plete biographical sketch, and in the 
Index volume (page 122) there are refer- 
ences to other articles in which he is 
mentioned. 

Here also are to be found articles re- 
lating to many other historical events 
of recent occurrence. See 

Home Rule, XXVII, 309. 

Corea and the war between China 
and Japan in 1895, XXVI, 284. 

TJie British Dominions — England. In 
the article Britannia, IV, 317, an ac- 
count is given of the ancient 
Britons, and of the occupancy 
of their country by the Ro- 
mans previous to its settlement by the 
English. The historical part of the 
article England fills about one hundred 
pages (VIII, 238-328), which may be 
read at your odd moments of leisure. 
The history of England since 1874 is 
succinctly told in XXVII, 149. 

From these articles alone you may 
obtain a good practical knowledge of 
English history. In connection with 
them, however, it will be profitable to 
read the following briefer articles: 

William the Conqueror, XXIV, 606. 

Henry II, XI, 586-87. 

Thomas a Becket, I, 36-37. 

Richard Coeur de Lion, XX, 554. 

John, XIII, 724-25; and Charter, V, 
374. 

Stephen Langton, XIV, 287. 

Edward I, VII, 592. 

Henry VIII, XI, 590. 
Queen Mary, XV, 599. 
Lady Jane Grey, XI, 172. 

Queen Elizabeth, VIII, 132. 

Sir Francis Drake, VII, 337. 

Charles I, V, 350. 

Oliver Cromwell, VI, 528. 

William III, XXIV, 610. 



English 
Biograpliy 



THREE COURSES OF READING IN HISTORY 



43 



Queen Anne, II, 55. 

Marlborough, XV, 560. 

Lord Chatham, V, 381. 

Charles James Fox, IX, 436. 

William Pitt, XIX, 143. 

Read also Armaua, II, 476, and Eng- 
lish Costumes, VI, 412. 

Scotland. See article on Scotland, 
XXI, 493-543. Read also for an account 
of specially important periods 
^"mstory ^^^ Scottish history, the follow- 
ing biographical sketches: 

William Wallace, XXIV, 348. 

Robert Bruce, XX, 608. 

Mary Queen of Scots, XV, 601. 

Ireland. The historical part of the 
article Ireland, XIII, 220-278, is ex- 
tremely interesting. It includes such 
topics as the following: Leg- 
^'^History endary history of Ireland, 
page 248; Scotic conquest of 
Ulster, 251; early Irish church, 253; 
Ireland in the Early Middle Ages, 261; 
Anglo-Norman invasion, 264; Crom- 
well's campaign, 273; James II in Ire- 
land, 274; struggle for independence, 
276; Fenianism, 277. 

India. For a history of the English 
in India, see article India, XII, 835- 
852. Read also the biographies of 
Robert Clive, VI, 9, and Warren Hast- 
ings, XI, 457. 



Britisli Col 
onies 



Africa. For an account of the various 
possessions and dependencies in Africa, 
refer to the Index volume, and 
read what is said in the Bri- 
tannka with reference to each 
of the several colonies or countries. 
Study particularly the article on the 
present condition of Africa, XXV, 59- 
83. Read also the special articles on 

Natal, XVII, 245; XXVIII, 173. 

Cape Colony, V, 37-45; XXVI, 51. 

Livingstone, David, XIV, 726-29. 

Rhodesia, XXVIII, 586; Cecil Rhodes, 
XXVIII, 585; Boer War, XXV, 516. 

Jameson, L. S., XXVII, 438. 

Stanley, Henry M., XXIX, 149. 

Australia. For the history of the ex- 
ploration and settlement of this conti- 
nent, see Australia, III, 89-93. 

There still remain in the Britannica 

hundreds of historical and biographical 

articles which have not been 

°*?®'^ mentioned in this chapter. 

Courses ^ 

But you can find them, if need 
be, without the help of a guide. Hav- 
ing been conducted thus far along the 
road, you will now have no difficulty in 
making your own way. With a little 
study and care you may even mark out 
another course of historical reading for 
yourself; for the Britannica contains the 
materials for many such courses. 



CHAPTER VII 
Five Coueses of Reading in the History of Literature 



COURSE the first — AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

O strange New World, that yet wast never young, 
Whose youth from thee by gripin' want was wrung, 
Brown foundlin' o' the woods, whose baby bed 
Was prowled round by the Injun's cracklin' tread, 
An' who grew'st strong thru' shifts an' wants an' pains, 
Nursed by stern men with empires in their brains!" 



Let us begin this study by a review 
of the history of our own literature, for 
it is in the institutions and productions 
of his own country that the pride and 
hope of every true American should be 
centred. " The number of writers who 
have acquired some amount of well- 
founded reputation in the United States 
is startling." In the course of study 
which we shall here offer, we can do 
little more than refer the student to 
the Britamiicd's numerous biographical 
sketches of American writers. The spe- 
cial article on American Literature, I, 
630-44, written by the late Professor 
Nichol of Glasgow, is worthy of our 
careful attention ; and the first two 
chapters of that article should be read 
by way of introduction to the course 
which we have before us. The first part 
of the third chapter (I, 632) will intro- 
duce us to colonial literature and the 
earliest American writers. 

Captain John Smith, whose descrip- 
tion of Virginia is usually spoken of 
as the first American book, is the sub- 
ject of a long and interest- 
ing article, XXII, 183. But 
Smith's book can scarcely be 
called literature, certainly not in the 
better sense of the term. The first 

(44) 



Colonial 
Writers 



genuine literary work performed in 
America was George Sandys's transla- 
tion of the works of Ovid, made on 
the banks of the James river, and pub- 
lished in 1626. See the article, George 
Sandys, XXI, 274; also Ovid, XVIII, 81. 
Of other early writers in America, there 
are a few whose biographies should be 
studied. Read the lives of the great 
theologians and controversialists of col- 
onial New England: 

Roger Williams, XXIV, 618. 

John Cotton, XII, 764. 

John Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians, 
VIII, 128. 

Cotton Mather, XV, 637. 

Jonathan Edwards, VII, 597. 

Then turn to the article on Ben- 
jamin Franklin, IX, 626. This, with 
the first two columns of Chapter III, 
on page 632 of volume I, will com- 
plete our study of the Colonial Pe- 
riod. 

Concerning the orators, statesmen, 
and poets who flourished during the 
Revolutionary Period there is much 
to read; and yet of the writ- 
''an??oets ^^g^ of that period there re- 
mains to us but little that 
is of permanent literary value. Read 
what is said on this subject on pages 



FIVE COURSES OF READING IN THE HISTORY OF LITERATURE 



45 



Historians 



Orators 



632 and 633 of the first volume of the 
Britannica. Read the articles on 
Patrick Henry, XI, 602. 
Alexander Hamilton, XI, 368. 
Thomas Jefferson, XIII, 624. 
John Trumbull, XXIII, 629. 
Joel Barlow, III, 325. 
Benjamin Franklin, IX, 626-33. 
Thomas Paine, XVIII, 140-41. 
Coming now to the literature of the 
Nineteenth Century, let us read first 

of the great historians: 
George Bancroft, XXV, 341. 
John Bach McMaster, XXVII, 675. 
William H. Prescott, XIX, 721. 
John Lothrop Motley, XVII, 8. 
Francis Parkman, XXVIII, 334. 
Of the orators: 

Daniel Webster, XXIV, 498. 

Henry Clay, V, 714. 
John C. Calhoun, IV, 606. 
Edward Everett, VIII, 646. 
Of writers of fiction and miscellanies: 
Washington Irving, XIII, 383. 

Nathaniel P. Willis,XXIV,619. 
James Fenimore Cooper, VI, 

299. 
Charles Brockden Brown, IV, 345. 
Nathaniel Hawthorne, XI, 479. 
Harriet Beecher Stowe, XXIX, 169. 
William Dean Howells, XXVII, 331. 
Of essayists and theologians: 

William Ellery Channing, V, 

341. 
Theodore Parker, XVIII, 306. 
Ralph Waldo Emerson, XXVI, 568. 
Henry D. Thoreau, XXIII, 333. 
Oliver Wendell Holmes, XXVII, 305. 
Of poets: 

Henry W. Longfellow, XIV, 870. 
Edgar Allan Poe, XIX, 267. 

William Cullen Bryant, XXV, 

625. 
James Russell Lowell, XXVII, 638. 
John G. Whittier, XXIX, 545. 



Novelists, 
etc. 



Essayists, 
etc. 



Poets 



Walt Whitman, XXIX, 544. 

Read, next, Chapter IV, pages 633- 
44, Volume L 

The new era in the history of 
American literature began at about 
the time of the Civil War. The pro- 
ducts of that period, and the charac- 
teristics which distinguished them, 
are described in an abla article by 
Prof. F. L. Pattee, in XXV, 164-71. See 
also American Drama, XXVI, 447. 

If the student wishes to continue 
this course of reading so as to include 
a still more minute survey of our re- 
cent literature, with a study of the 
lives and works of some of the later 
writers, he can do so without further 
direction from the Guide. 
^^LiTeratureBy Consulting the Index vol- 
ume he will be able in most 
cases to find any name of real prom- 
inence in American literature. A 
course of reading pursued in the man- 
ner here indicated cannot fail to impart 
a comprehensive knowledge of the 
history of our own literature. If con- 
ducted in connection with the reading 
of extracts from the writers men- 
tioned, its educative value can scarcely 
be overrated. The readings may con- 
clude with the " Summary," I, 644. 

COUESE THE SECOND — ENGLISH LITERA- 
TURE. 

See the special article on English 
literature, VIII, 360. This is a long 

and valuable contribution by 
^Periods Thomas Arnold, and should be 

read in parts in connection 
with the following short articles, or 
parts of articles: 

I. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 596-1066. 

The Venerable Beda, III, 415. 
Caedmon, the first English poet, IV, 
559. 



46 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



King Alfred, I, 447; VIII, 361. 
^Ifric, the Grammarian, I, 164, 

II. ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD, 1066-1215. 

Komances and legends of King Arthur, 
V, 279; II, 568; VIII, 278; IX, 562; XX, 
657-65. 

Layamon (13th century), XIV, 374. 

Geoffrey of Monmouth (12th century), 
X, 154. 

III. THE TRANSITION PERIOD, 1215-1350. 

Matthew of Paris (13th century). XV, 
640. 
Duns Scotus, VII, 470. 
Roger Bacon (died 1292), III, 188. 
Ormin's Rhythmic gospels, VIII, 354. 
Robert Manning, XV, 501. 

IV. EARLY ENGLISH LITERATURE, 

1350-1477. 

John Wyckliffe, XXIV, 744. 

John Gower, XI, 20. 

Geoffrey Chaucer, V, 389; VIII, 367. 

John Lydgate, XV, 99. 

The invention of printing, XI, 300; 
VIII, 368. 

Caxton, the first English printer, V, 
243; VIII, 356. 

V. THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMA- 
TION. 1477-1579. 

John Skelton, XXII, 127. 

John Colet, VI, 125. 

Sir Thomas More, XVI, 842. 

William Tyndale, XXIII, 717; VIII, 
344-45. 

Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, XXII, 
730; XXIV, 740. 

Sir Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset, 
VII, 322. 

Roger Ascham, II, 592. 

VL THE ELIZABETHAN ERA, 1579-1620. 

Sir Philip Sidney, XXII, 40; XVIII, 
351. 



Edmund Spenser, XXII, 407. 
Sir Francis Bacon, III, 173; VIII, 
376. 
Christopher Marlowe, XV, 563-65. 
William Shakespeare, XXI, 773. 
Ben Jonson, XIII, 751. 
Beaumont and Fletcher, III, 405-10. 
Philip Massinger, XV, 624-26. 

VII. THE PURITAN PERIOD, 1620-1660." 

Thomas Hobbes, XII, 33. 
Sir Thomas Browne, IV, 350. 
John Milton, XVI, 336; XIX, 279. 
Jeremy Taylor, XXIII, 100. 
Edmund Waller, XXIV, 350. 
Abraham Cowley, VI, 472. 

VIII. PERIOD OF THE RESTORATION, 

1660-1700. 

John Dryden, VII, 421. 
Samuel Butler, IV, 523; XXI, 334. 
John Bunyan, IV, 470. 
John Locke, XIV, 758. 

IX. IN THE AGE OF QUEEN ANNE, 

1700-1727. 

Daniel Defoe, VII, 24. 

Jonathan Swift, XXII, 799; XXI, 335. 

Joseph Addison, I. 134. 

George Berkeley, III, 508. 

Alexander Pope, XIX, 496. 

X. THE GEORGIAN ERA, 1727-1800. 

Samuel Richardson, XX, 558. 
Bishop Butler, IV, 518; I, 695. 
Henry Fielding, IX, 125; XXI, 335. 
Samuel Johnson, XIII, 730. 
David Hume, XII, 360. 
Laurence Sterne, XXII, 569. 
Thomas Gray, XI, 70. 
Tobias G. Smollett, XXII, 193. 
William Robertson, XX, 614. 
Adam Smith, XXII, 179. 
Sir William Blackstone, HI, 695. 
Oliver Goldsmith, X, 676. 



FIVE COURSES OF READING IN THE HISTORY OF LITERATURE 



41 



Edmund Burke, IV, 481. 

William Cowper, VI, 473. 

Edward Gibbon, X, 512. 

Jeremy Bentham, III, 496. 

Richard Brinsley Sheridan, XXI, 833. 

George Crabbe, VI, 478. 

William Blake, HI, 698. 

Robert Burns, IV, 505. 

XI. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

William Wordsworth, XXIV, 703; 
XIX, 283. 

Sir Walter Scott, XXI, 570. 

Samuel T. Coleridge, VI, 122. 

Robert Southey, XXII, 303. 

Charles Lamb, XIV, 235. 

Henry Hallam, XI, 351. 

Thomas Campbell, IV, 667. 

Thomas De Quincey, VII, 89. 

Lord Byron, IV, 537; XXI, 335. 

Frederick Marryat, XV, 576. 

Percy Bysshe Shelley, XXI, 826. 

William Whewell, XXIV, 569. 

George Grote, XI, 189. 

Thomas Carlyle, XXVI, 64. 

John Keats, XIV, 24. 

Connop Thirlwall, XXIII, 326. 

Sir Charles Lyell, XV, 102. 

Thomas Hood, XII, 148. 

George Finlay, IX, 192. 

Thomas B. Macaulay, XV, 127. 

John Henry Newman, XXVIII, 214. 

Lord Lytton, XV, 122. 

Elizabeth B. Browning, IV, 351. 

John Stuart Mill, XVI, 320. 

Charles Lever, XIV, 485. 

Charles R. Darwin, XXVI, 358. 

Alexander W. Kinglake, XXVII, 498. 

Alfred Tennyson, XXIX, 251. 

William M. Thackeray, XXIII, 232; 
XXI, 335. 

Charles Dickens, VII, 150. 

Robert Browning, XXV, 616. 

Charles Reade, XX, 315. 

Anthony Trollope, XXIII, 622. 



Charlotte Bronte, IV, 328. 

George Henry Lewes, XIV, 490. 

James A. Froude, XXVII, 44. 

John Ruskin, XXVIII, 631. 

Charles Kingsley, XIV, 90. 

George Eliot (Mrs. Mary Ann Cross), 
XXVI, 318. 

Herbert Spencer, XXIX, 136. 

John Tyndall, XXIX, 342. 

Matthew Arnold, XXV, 250. 

Edward A. Freeman, XXVII, 33. 

Goldwin Smith, XXIX, 106. 

William Wilkie Collins, XXVI, 231. 

Thomas H. Huxley, XXVII, 346. 

William Stubbs, XXIX, 186. 

George Meredith, XXVIII, 73. 

Samuel R. Gardiner, XXVII, 64. 

Sir Edwin Arnold, XXV, 249. 

Algernon C. Swinburne, XXIX, 210. 

John R. Green, XXVII, 163. 

William E. H. Lecky, XXVII, 564. 

James Bryce, XXV, 625. 

Thomas Hardy, XXVII, 230. 

Rudyard Kipling, XXVII, 500. 

Poet Laureate, XXVII, 554. 

Read now the article on Canadian 
Literature, XXVI, 38. 

COURSE the third— ancient LITER- 
ATURE. 

1. Greek Literature. The article on 
Greek literature, XI, 121, is a compre- 
hensive sketch of the literary 
wruers development of Greece, show- 
ing how its successive periods 
were related to each other, and marking 
the dominant characteristics of each. 
It should be read in parts, in connection 
with the separate articles relating to 
the lives and particular works of Greek 
writers. The study of this literature nat- 
urally begins with the Homeric hymns 
and with the two great epics, the Iliad 
and the Odyssey. See the article Homer, 
XII, 111. 



48 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



After this read the following articles 
on three great poets of ancient Greece : 
Hesiod, XI, 694. 
Simonides, XXII, 90. 

Pindar, XIX, 107. 

This brings us to the Greek drama. 

Bead the first two paragraphs on the 

Attic Literature, XI, 125; then 

"^^^ turn to the article Drama, VII, 

Drama 

349, and read the six pages de- 
voted to Greek drama. After this take 
up each of the great dramatists sep- 
arately, the tragedians first : 

^schylus, I, 188. 

Sophocles, XXII, 284. 

Euripides, VIII, 590. 

Then re-read what is said of Greek 
COMEDY, VII, 352, and study the article 
on the great comic dramatist, Aristo- 
phanes, II, 446. 

Prose writers will next claim our 
attention, especially iEsop, the fabulist. 

Historians I' 1^^! ^^^ ^^^ great historiaus, 
and Herodotus, XI, 676; Xenophon, 

orators ^^jy ^^g. ^^^ Thucydidcs, 

XXIII, 343. After these make a short 
study of the Greek orators, XI, 127, and 
especially of Demosthenes, VII, 59, and 
Isocrates, XIII, 398. 

The Greek philosophers will then 
come in for brief mention. Read the 
biographical portion of each 
''''pi°ers' of the following articles : 
Socrates, XXII, 244. 

Plato, XIX, 205. 

Aristotle, II, 448. 

Attention may now be given to the 

chapter entitled, The Literature of the 

Decadence, XI, 127, wherein is given a 

brief survey of the literary his- 

^ Writers ^o^y 0^ ^^^ Alexandrian and 
Grseco-Roman periods of in- 
tellectual activity. Here a number of 



interesting names present themselves. 
In the department of pastoral poetry 
we shall read of Theocritus, XXIII, 272, 
and of his disciples and imitators, Bion, 
III, 602, and Moschus, XVI, 882. In the 
field of criticism we shall learn of Aris- 
tarchus, II, 443, whose studies, with 
those of his disciples, gradually formed 
the basis for the science of grammar. 
In mathematics we find the noted name 
of Euclid, VIII, 575, In prose fiction 
we have Lucian, XV, 44, the inventor of 
the art of the story-writer. In history 
we have Josephus, the historian of the 
Jewish nation, XIII, 761. In biography, 
Plutarch stands forth preeminent, XIX, 
243. In geography appears the noted 
name of Strabo. In rhetoric we have 
Cassius Longinus, XIV, 875, the reputed 
author of the still famous essay on Sub- 
limity. In philosophy are the great 
names of Epictetus, VIII, 418, and Mar- 
cus Aurelius, III, 75. 

It would be easy to extend these read- 
ings in Greek literature almost indefi- 
nitely; and the student who wishes to 
do so may, by referring to the numerous 
articles devoted to the lives of famous 
Greek writers, continue them to almost 
any desired length. 

2. Roman Literature. In the depart- 
ment of Roman literature we shall take 
as the basis for our studies the very 
comprehensive and scholarly article on 
that subject in XX, 735-46. This arti- 
cle, which gives a general survey of the 
progress of literature during 
the different periods of Roman 
history, should be read in sec- 
tions, with constant reference to the 
separate articles devoted to the lives of 
the most famous Latin writers. In con- 
nection with the chapter on the first 
period (from 240 b. c. to about 80 b. c), 
read the account of the Roman drama, 



First 
Period 



FIVE COURSES OF READING IN THE HISTORY OF LITERATURE 



49 



Second 
Period 



VII, 354. Then study the history of the 
early Roman dramatists : 

Nsevius, XVII, 168. 

Ennius, VIII, 398. 

Plautus, XIX, 226. 

Terence, XXIII, 208. 

In connection with the chapter on the 
second period (80 b. c. to 42 b. c), read 
the following special articles : 
Cicero, V, 673. 
Sallust, XXI, 229. 
C^sar, IV, 562. 

Lucretius, XV, 52. 

With the third period (42 b.c. to 17 
A. D.) we enter upon the study of the 
Augustan age of Roman lit- 
^peHod ERATURE, III, 72-74. Here a 
noble list of names is pre- 
sented, demanding a special study of 
the following biographical articles: 

Virgil, XXIV, 267. 

Ovid, XVIII, 81, 

Horace, XII, 163. 

Livy, XIV, 731. 

During the fourth period, extending 
for more than a century (17 a. d. to 130 
A. D.), Roman literature continues to 
flow in the old channels, but 
there is a manifest deterior- 
ation in almost every depart- 
ment of literary effort. And yet among 
the dramatists we have Persius, XVIII 
674; among satirists, Juvenal, XIII, 813 
among historians, Tacitus, XXIII, 24 
among philosophers, Seneca, XXI, 690 
among rhetoricians, Quintilian, XX, 193 
and among poets, Martial, XV, 584, and 
Statins, XXII, 484. "The last writer 
who combines genius with something 
of national spirit is the poet Claudian 
(V, 712), who wrote his epics under 
the immediate inspiring influence of 
a great national crisis and a national 
hero." After him there is perhaps only 
one Latin writer whose life and works 
4 



Fourth 
Period 



are deserving of study in this connec- 
tion. That writer is Boetius (III, 743), 
who lived in the fifth century of our 
era, and who is described by Gibban as 
" the last of the Romans whom Cato or 
Tully could have acknowledged for their 
countryman." 

COURSE THE FOURTH — FIFTEEN GREAT 
LITERATURES. 

1. Hebrew. XI, 538. The Bible, III, 
548-54; Early Israelitish literature, XIII, 
418; the Talmud, XXIII, 40; the Mid- 
rash, XVI, 297; the Mishnah, XVI, 526; 
Abenezra, I, 39. 

2. Sanskrit. XXI, 286-800. 

8. Persian. XVIII, 668. Zend-Avesta, 
XXIV, 814; Zoroaster, XXIV, 859; Fir- 
dousi, IX, 196; Omar Khayyam, XVII, 
793; Hafiz, XI, 328. 

4. Greek. XI, 121. Homer, XII, 111; 
^schylus, 1, 188; Xenophon, XXIV, 756; 
Plato, XIX, 205; Demosthenes, VII, 59. 

5. Bonian. XX, 785-46. Lucretius, 
XV, 52; Csesar, IV, 562; Cicero, V, 678; 
Augustan Age, III, 72; Virgil, XXIV, 
267; Ovid, XVIII, 81; Livy, XIV, 781; 
Tacitus, XXIII, 24. 

6. Chinese. V, 567. Confucius, VI, 
229; Lao-tsze, XIV, 295. 

7. French. IX, 561. Froissart, IX, 
797; Rabelais, XX, 200; Montaigne, XVI, 
793; Corneille, VI, 370; Pascal, XVIII, 
389; Moliere, XVI, 646; La Fontaine, 
XIV, 204; Racine, XX, 210; Boileau, III, 
750; Bossuet, IV, 62; Voltaire, XXIV, 
305; Rousseau, XXI, 29; Victor Hugo, 
IX, 597, XXVII, 336; Cousin, VI, 462; 
Guizot, XI, 237; Dumas, VII, 450; George 
Sand, VII, 438; Smile Zola, XXIX, 632; 
the French Academy, XXV, 81. 

8. German. X, 467. Luther, XV, 73; 
Arndt, II, 548; Wieland, XXIV, 589; 
Lessing, XIV, 478; Herder, XI, 650; 



50 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNlCA 



Goethe, X, 642; Schiller, XXI, 412; No- 
valis, XI, 422; Hegel, XI, 546; Heine, 
XI, 558; Paul Heyse, X, 487; Spielhagen, 
X, 487, XXIX, 140; Fritz Reuter, XX, 
508; Auerbach, XXV, 294; Freytag, X, 
487, XXVII, 40; Ebers, XXVI, 483. 

^.Italian. XIII, 509. Dante, VI, 712; 
Petrarch, XVIII, 719; Boccaccio, III, 732; 
Tasso, XXIII, 82; Ariosto, II, 442; Al- 
fieri, I, 443; Manzoni, XV, 522; Carducci, 
XXVI, 60. 

10. Spanish. XXII, 367. Lope de 
Vega, XXIV, 132; Cervantes, V, 302; 
Calderon, IV, 585. 

11. Russian. XXI, 111. Poushkin, XIX, 
668; TurgeniefE, XXIII, 519; Tolstoy, 
XXIX, 297; Gogol, X, 657; Dostoyevsky, 

XXVI, 440; Marie Bashkirtseff, XXV, 380. 

12. Swedish. XXII, 791. Tegner, XXIII, 
117; Fredrika Bremer, IV, 229; Runc- 
berg, XXI, 66; Topelius, XXII, 796; Ryd- 
berg, XXVIII, 637. 

13. Norwegian. XVII, 603. Bjornstjerne 
Bjornson, XXV, 488; Henrik Ibsen, 

XXVII, 352; Asbjornsen, XXV, 266. 

14. Danish. VII, 78. Oehlenschlager, 
XVII, 751; Hans Christian Andersen, 
XXV, 184. 

15. Arabic. 11,230. The Koran, XVI, 
619-628; Abu-Teman, 1, 61 ; Tabari, XXIII, 
5-9; Avicenna, III, 133; Al-Gazali, I, 450; 
Averroes, III, 129; Abulfeda, I, 60. 

COURSE THE FIFTH — GENERAL VIEW OF 
THE SUBJECT (fOR ADVANCED STUDENTS), 

Prose Literature. Let us begin our gen- 
eral study of prose literature by reading 
the article on History, XII, 21. Numer- 
ous collateral and additional references 
relating to the same subject will suggest 
themselves, and should be traced out 
and studied. Among these are the fol- 
lowing: Influence of history upon the 
development of culture, II, 108; relation 



History 



Fiction 



of history to evolution, VIII, 665; the 
philosophy of history, XVIII, 809; rela- 
tion of history to archaeology, II, 292, etc. 
Following the reading of these, 
we may make a brief study of 
the distinctive features of the works of 
certain great historians. For example, 
read what is said of Herodotus, XI, 676; 
of Thucydides, XXIII, 343; of Livy, XIV, 
731; of Sallust, XXI, 229; of Tacitus, 
XXIII, 24; of Villehardouin, XXIV, 246; 
of Froissart, IX, 700; of Bodin, III, 736- 
37; of Robertson, XX, 614; of Hallam, 
XI, 351; of Macaulay, XV, 127. 

Fiction. Read the special article on 
Romance, XX, 648; also the article by 
Andrew Lang, entitled. Tales, XXIII, 32. 
Let this be followed by a study of the 
romantic literature of different coun- 
tries. Observe what is said of French 
romance, XX, 676; of German, 
X, 484; of Spanish, XXII, 368; 
of Arabian, XXIII, 9; of Persian, XVIII, 
670. As to romanticism in English lit- 
erature, see XX, 880, The influence of 
romanticism upon French literature is 
described in IX, 597; and upon German 
literature, in X, 484, 

The Drama. Study the very com- 
prehensive article on the Drama, VII, 
343. Read about the drama in 
the time of Marlowe, XV, 563; 
and Shakespeare, XXI, 795; about the 
Greek drama, XI, 125; about the French 
drama, IX, 578; about the Spanish 
drama, XXII, 370; about the miracle- 
plays, V, 281. Read the special article 
on the Theatre, XXIII, 240. 

Poetry. The scholarly article on Po- 
etry, XIX, 269-85, is worthy of careful 
study. It would be well to 
read it by paragraphs, making 
reference in the meanwhile to additional 
articles on the lives and works of the 
great poets therein mentioned. Read 



Drama 



Poetry 



READINGS IN PHILOLOGY AND IHE HISTORY OF LANGUAGE 



51 



Wordsworth's theory of poetry, XXIV, 

705. See what is said of poetry as a 

fine art, IX, 180. 

Satire. Bead the article on Satire, 

XXI, 332. Study the lives and works of 
the great modern satirists: 
Rabelais, XX, 200; Voltaire, 

XXIV, 305; Dean Swift, XXII, 799; 

Thackeray, XXIII, 232, etc. 



Satire. 



SUPPLEMENTARY COURSE- 
LIBRARIES. 



BOOKS AND 



This course may consist chiefly of a 
study of the two important articles on 



Books, XVIII, 149, and Libraries, XIV, 
534. 

The Advocates' Library, XXV, 58. 

Astor Library, XXV, 278. 

Boston Public Library, XXV, 551. 

Libraries in Chicago, XXVI, 146. 

See " Some Bookish Subjects " in the 
chapter entitled The Bookman, in this 
Guide. 

For Libraries in the United States, see 
XIV, 534, and XXVII, 586. An interest- 
ing account of the Library of Congress 
is given in the article beginning on page 
174 of Vol. XXVIII. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Readings in Philology and the History of Language 

" Thej have been at a great feast of languages." 

— Love's Labour Lost. 



Philology is that branch of knowl- 
edge which deals with human speech, 
and with all that speech discloses as 
to the nature and history of man. In 
the following courses of reading it is 
proposed to give a general survey of 
the principal languages of the world, 
their history and the distinguishing 
characteristics of each. These courses 
may be considered as either prefatory 
or supplementary to the courses 
already indicated for readings in the 
history of literature. A fairly good 
knowledge of general history, such as 
may be acquired from the readings 
designated in Chapter VI of this vol- 
ume, will add very much to your 
ability to appreciate and fully under- 
stand the courses which follow. 

course no. I. 

Begin with the article Philology, 

XVIII, 778, and read carefully that 



Philology 



part which relates to the science of 
language in general, pp. 778-91. This 
will give a general view of 
the subject, and prepare you 
for the more specific study of particu- 
lar languages. The following articles, 
or parts of articles, may then be read : 

Alphabet, I, 527-40. 

Hieroglyphics, XI, 709-723. 

Cuneiform Writing, VI, 624; and In- 
scriptions, XIII, 121-22. 

History of language (article An- 
thropology), 11, 94. 

Theories of evolution with respect to 
language, VIII, 673. 

Language and ethnology, VIII, 546. 

Language and thought, XX, 80. 

Language and mythology, XVII, 144. 

Aryan Languages, II, 609, and XVIII, 
791 b. To this family of languages be- 
long ten groups or sub-families, as fol- 
lows: 

1. Sanskrit. XXI, 282; XI, 753. 



52 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



2. Iranian. XVIII, 139, 665. 

3. Armenian. II, 482. 
^7^^" 4. Greek. XI, 112. See also 

Languages 

Greek literature; and learn 
about the Romaic dialects which origi- 
nated in the Greek, XI, 121. 

5. Albanian. XVIII, 798. 

6. Italic. This group includes the 
Latin language, for a full history of 
which see XIV, 327. From the Latin 
have sprung the Romance languages, 
which are the subject of a valuable arti- 
cle in XX, 678. The great modern Ro- 
mance languages are each treated in a 
separate article, as follows: 

(1) Italian, XIII, 501; XIV, 341. 

(2) Spanish, XXII, 360. 

(3) Portuguese, XIX, 570. 

(4) Provencal, XIX, 892. 

(5) French, IX, 554. 

(6) Ladino, XIII, 502. 

(7) Roumanian, XXIV, 289. 

7. Celtic. This group of languages is 
treated very briefly in XVIII, 798, and 
more fully in V, 258. 

(1) The Gaelic language, which is a 
branch of the Celtic, is the subject of a 
separate article in X, 7. Other branches 
are treated as follows: 

(2) Irish, or Goidelic, V, 258; with its 
dialect, the Manx, XV, 460 b; V, 259 a. 

(3) Armoric, V, 281. 

(4) Cornish (dialect), V, 258. 

(5) Welsh, V, 258-59, 273. 

8. Germanic or Teutonic. This great 
subfamily comprises two groups, known 
as the Eastern Germanic and Western 
Germanic languages. In the former 
group belong the Gothic language, X, 
757, and the Scandinavian branch, XXI, 
381. Of the Scandinavian languages 
there are two subdivisions: (1) the 
Eastern Scandinavian, which comprises, 

Swedish, XXI, 386; 

Danish, VII, 78, and XXI, 389; 



and (2) the Western Scandinavian, which 
comprises, 

Norwegian, XXI, 385; 

Icelandic, XII, 663. 

The Western Germanic languages are 
each treated in a separate article: 

(1) English, VIII, 349. 

(2) Frisian, IX, 692. 

(3) German, X, 461. 

(4) Dutch, XII, 87. 

9. Baltic. This group embraces three 
unimportant groups, the first of which, 
Prussian, is now extinct (see XVIII, 798). 
The other two are the Lithuanian, XXII, 
157, and the Lettish, briefly referred to 
in VII, 163, and XVIII, 798. 

10. Slavonic. XXII, 156. Of this group 
there are two divisions, the Southern 
and the Western. The former includes 
the following languages: 

(1) Russian, XXI, 111. 

(2) Ruthenian, XIX, 320. 

(3) Bulgarian, XXII, 158. 

(4) Servian, XVIII, 555; XXII, 159. 

(5) Slovenish, XXII, 159. 

The latter or Western division in- 
cludes, 

(1) Bohemian, or Czech, XXII, 160. 

(2) Polish, XVIII, 798; XXII, 160. 
The Guide has presented above a brief 

outline for the study of the Aryan fam- 
ilies of languages. The student who 
follows this course of reading carefully 
will have acquired no small knowledge 
of the science of philology, and he will 
be prepared, by way of review, to study 
the second part of the article on that 
subject, XVIII, 794-803. 

COUESE NO. II. 

A second course of study in philology 
will include the Semitic family of lan- 
semitic guages. To this family be- 

Languages long : 

(1) The Hebrew language, XI, 531. 



READINGS IN PHILOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF LANGUAGE 



53 



(2) The Phoenician, XXI, 673. 

(3) The Assyrian, III, 166. 

(4) The Syriac, II, 269. 

(5) The Arabic, XI, 531. 

(6) The Abyssinian, I, 64. 

(7) Aramaic Languages, II, 269-70. 
By way of supplementing this course, 

a short time may be spent in the study 
of Semitic Inscriptions, XIII, 122-24. 

COURSE NO. III. 

A third course of study in philology 
will include the history and peculiarities 
of the third great family of languages, 
the Hamitic (see XVIII, 791). Here we 
have: 

(1) The Egyptian language, VII, 625. 

(2) The Lybian languages, XVIII, 792. 

(3) The Ethiopic languages, I, 235. 

COURSE NO. IV. 

A fourth course of study in philology 
will include the Ural-Altaic, or aggluti- 
native, family of languages, XXIV, 5-7. 
To this family belong : 

(1) The Finnish, IX, 190. 

(2) The Hungarian, or Magyar, XII, 
389. 

(3) The Turkish, or Tatar, XXIII, 703- 
704. 

(4) The Tungusian (including the 
Manchu), XXIII, 646. 

(5) The Mongol (including possibly 
the Japanese and Korean languages), 
XVI, 776-78. 

(6) The Samoyed, XXI, 263. 

COURSE NO. V, 

A fifth course of study in philology 
will include the monosyllabic, or South- 



eastern Asiatic family of languages. 
To this family belong : 

(1) Chinese, V, 567-73. 

(2) Burmese, IV, 495. 

(3) Siamese, XXI, 895. 

(4) Tibetan, XXIII, 368-69. 

Many other languages and dialects 
receive notice in the Britannica. Not 
Misceua- o'^ly students of philology, but 
neous many curious readers will be 
studies pleased to learn something 
about the language of the Basques, III, 
366; of the Etruscans, VIII, 560-61; of 
the American aborigines, XII, 863 a'"- 
864; I, 604-06; of the Peruvians(Quichua), 
I, 614 b; of the Gipsies, X, 547; of the 
Papuans, XVIII, 235; of the Hottentots, 
XII, 325; of the Kurds, XIV, 158; also 
something about the Dravidian or South- 
Indian family of languages, XII, 817; 
the Kolarian or Northeast-Indian group 
of languages, XII, 817; and the Malay- 
Polynesian family of languages, XV, 
327-28. But we need enumerate no 
further. We have conducted the stu- 
dent to a point whence he will now be 
able to proceed in his researches with- 
out the help of a guide. 

Here are a few subjects of general in- 
terest, which it is well to know about: 

Grammar, XI, 34. 
"^inrJs? Dictionaries, VII, 155. 

Americanisms, XXV, 160. 

Volaptik, XXIX, 458. 

See now the references in the chapter 
on The History of Literature in this 
Guide; also those in the chapter entitled 
The Writer. 



CHAPTER IX 



Readings in Astronomy 

"And let mj lamp at midnight hour 
Be seen in some high lonely tower, 
Where I may oft outwatch the Bear 
With thrice great Hermes ; or unsphere 
The Spirit of Plato, to unfold 
What world or what vast regions hold 
The immortal mind." 

— John Milton, 



There are two classes of persons who 
will be helped by the courses of scien- 
tific reading proposed in this 

Two Classes • , i • j.i i • i 

of Students Chapter and in those which 
follow: (1). The young man 
or young woman who is attempting to 
pursue some method of self-instruction 
at home, but is not yet prepared to 
grapple with the most difficult problems 
of science. (2). The student who is al- 
ready well started on the way, and is 
anxious to extend and supplement the 
information which he has acquired from 
teachers and text-books, until he shall 
have gotten down to the very bottom 
of the subjects which he is studying. 
The first class will, as a general rule, be 
profited most by the shorter and more 
popular articles in the Britannka; the 
second will often find in the special and 
more technical articles just that kind 
of thoroughness and comprehensiveness 
which scholars admire and desire, and 
from which they alone are able to de- 
rive the greatest benefit. It is here 
that the superiority of the Britannica 
over every other work of reference is 
most apparent — it has articles adapted 
to the needs and comprehension of every 
class of readers. 

(54) 



The following readings in astronomy 
are intended for students who have at- 
tained to some proficiency in the sci- 
ence; but an effort has been made to 
meet the wants of the self-taught home 
student as well as those of the spec- 
ialist and the scholar. 

The home student should read the 
historical portion of the article on As- 
tronomy, beginning on page 650 of vol- 
ume II, and ending on page 667. He will 
find this chapter quite comprehensive, 
including nearly twenty pages 
Astrono°my ^^ ^^^ Britannica, and giving 
an account of the progress of 
astronomical science from the earliest 
ages down to the present time. The 
college student will find the entire ar- 
ticle on astronomy (72 pages in all), 
II, 650-721, to be more complete and 
satisfactory than most school text-books 
on the subject. The fact that it was 
written by the late Richard A. Proctor, 
one of the most famous of recent as- 
tronomers, is sufficient guarantee of its 
accuracy. The supplementary article, 
beginning on page 279 of Volume XXV, 
and written by Simon Newcomb, 
the leading American astronomer, con- 
tains an account of all the important 



READINGS IN ASTRONOMY 



55 



Astrono- 
mers 



discoveries that have been made within 
the past twenty years. 

Still pursuing the study of the history 
of this subject, read the entertaining 
article on Astrology, II, 646, 
and see what is said of astron- 
omy in Arabia, II, 231. After 
that, read the biographies of the most 
famous astronomers, ancient and mod- 
ern : 

Thales, XXIII, 235. 

Aristarchus, II, 444. 

Hipparchus, XI, 760. 

Ptolemy, XX, 92. 

Copernicus, VI, 307. 

Galileo, X, 28. 

Tycho Brahe, IV, 181. 

John Kepler, XIV, 47. 

Jeremiah Horrocks, XII, 175. 

Sir Isaac Newton, XVII, 449-60 

John Flamsteed, IX, 253. 

James Bradley, IV, 179. 

Edmund Halley, XI, 354. 

Laplace, XIV, 301. 

The Herschels, XI, 683, 687. 

Francois J. D. Arago, II, 263. 

Urbain J. J. Leverrier, XIV, 486. 

John Couch Adams, XXV, 44. 

Richard A. Proctor, XXVIII, 495. 

Camille Flammarion, XXVI, 659. 

Samuel P. Langley, XXVII, 544. 

Simon Newcomb, XXVIII, 204. 

Having mastered the general outlines 
and the history of the subject, the stu- 
dent can next devote his time to the 
study of certain special departments of 
astronomical theory, described in the 
articles on Gravitation, XI, 59-68; Aber- 
ration, I, 50; and Parallax, XVIII, 250- 
59. 

You are now prepared to enter upon 
the study of descriptive Astronomy. 
Begin with the Solar System, and read 
what Professor Proctor says of the sun 



in II, 671; then turn to J. Norman 
Lockyer's admirable article on the same 

subject, XXII, 679. The nebu- 
^?y8tem ^^^ theory of the origin of the 

sun and planets will next claim 
your attention; and of this you will 
find, in XVII, 319, a full exposition and 
discussion by Sir R. S. Ball, the distin- 
guished astronomer-royal for Ireland. 
The latest determinations of the distance 
of the sun are described in XXV, 281. 

Before proceeding farther it will be 
interesting to notice some curious facts 

concerning the manner in 
^"worship which people of all ages and 

different nationalities have re- 
garded the sun. Among other things, 
we shall learn how it was worshipped 
by the Sabseans, XXIV, 778; by the Phoe- 
nicians, XVIII, 815; by the Greeks, II, 
162; and by the ancient Peruvians, I, 612, 
Read what is said of solar myths, 
XVII, 164, and XV, 787 a; also the myth 
of Phaethon, XVIII, 740; that of Adonis, 
I, 148; and that of Apollo, II, 162. 

Festivals to the sun were held at 
Heliopolis, in Egypt, XIX, 100, VII, 
667 a'"; and also in Japan, XIX, 101; 
and one of the most famous temples in 
the world was that of the sun at Baalbec, 
III, 153. 

Resuming the subject of descriptive 
astronomy, and the study of the solar 
system, read next of the Planets in 
their order : 

Mercury, II, 679; Venus, II, 683, 
XIV, 586, XVIII, 250, and II, 658 and 
696; the place of the Earth 
"^planets ^^ ^^® solar System, II, 669, 
and X, 191; Mars, XIV, 48, 
and II, 679, 696; the Asteroids, II, 
643, 705, and XXV, 277; Jupiter, XVI, 
260, and II, 683, 707; Uranus, II, 662, 
XI, 685, and II, 683; Neptune, XIV, 



56 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



The 
Uoon 



Eclipses 



486, and II, 684, 711. Olbers's theory of 
the origin of the asteroids is given in a 
brief biographical article on that great 
German astronomer, XVII, 774; and the 
most recent facts concerning those in- 
teresting bodies are stated in XXV, 277. 
The article on the Moon, XVI, 825, 
next claims attention. The moon is 

also described in II, 676, 684. 

For its motion see XI, 67; for 

its phases, II, 697; for its in- 
fluence on the tides, XXIII, 375-78, 389, 
392; for its influence on atmospheric 
pressure, XVI, 129. The legends and 
myths of the moon are duly noticed in 
XI, 606, and XVII, 163. 

Many interesting things are told 
about Eclipses. For the nature and 

causes of eclipses, see II, 689 

and 702; turn also to XIV, 585, 
and XXII, 684. Some historical facts 
with relation to the observation of 
these phenomena are interesting. The 
Chinese have very ancient records of 
such observations, see II, 651. The 
Assyrians also kept similar records, 
III, 165. 

Read what is said about Comets, II, 
712. The article on this subject, VI, 
163, belongs to mathematical astron- 
omy. Notice Kepler's theories, XIV, 
49; Cassini's, V, 161. Leverrier's, XIV, 

486; and Olbers's, XVII, 774. 

Recent observations on comets 
are described by Professor Simon New- 
comb in XXV, 281. For Biela's comet, 
see VI, 172, and XVI, 116. An account 
of the appearance of twin comets may 
be found in XVI, 116. 

In the article on Meteors, XVI, 112, 
there is much interesting information. 
Meteorites, or " falling stars," are noticed 
in XVI, 117, with the theories regarding 
their origin, etc. See also Aerolite, I, 
167. 



Comets 



Passing now beyond the solar system, 
read first that portion of the article on 
astronomy which refers particularly to 
the fixed stars, II, 650, 721. For the 
classification of these stars, 
^^tarT^*^ with reference to magnitude, 
turn to XVIII, 854. An inter- 
esting notice of new and variable stars 
is given in XXII, 685. For the measure- 
ments of the stars, see XVI, 260; and for 
their spectroscopic analysis, see X, 192, 
and XXII, 685. 

Among other subjects which are of 
interest to students of astronomy, we 
may mention the following : 

The Zodiac, XXIV, 829. 

The Zodiacal Light, XXIV, 835. 

The Galaxy (Milky Way), II, 716. 

Corona, VI, 380. 

Celestial Photometry, XVIII, 854. 

Astronomical Photography, XXVIII, 
416-18. 

If you would acquire a knowledge of 
astronomical instruments, read the 
valuable articles on the telescope, XXIII, 
146, and XXIX, 245; also that on the 
Astronomi- transit circle, XXIII, 547; the 

cai instru- notice of the micrometer, XVI, 
"'"''*' 250; of the sextant, XXI, 760; 
of the astrolabe, X, 162. There are 
two articles on Observatories which 
must not be omitted, XVII, 728-37, and 
XXVIII, 272. See the description of 
Pond's astronomical instruments, XIX, 
467, and of Roomer's, XX, 635; also of the 
Orrery, XXVIII, 297. 

Read of the famous American tele- 
scope-maker, Alvan Clark, XXVI, 183. 

In connection with the study of As- 
tronomy, we very naturally think of al- 
manacs and calendars. The 
Britannica gives a good deal of 
information concerning both of these. 
The articles on the Almanac, I, 519, and 



Almanacs 



A GENERAL COURSE OF READING IN BIOLOGY 



57 



American Almanacs, XXV, 143, are espe- 
cially interesting. So, too, is that on 
the Calendar, IV, 589. The different 
calendars that have been or are still in 
use are each fully described : 

The Egyptian calendar, VII, 631. 

The Hebrew calendar, IV, 601. 

The Mohammedan calendar, IV, 602. 

The Burmese calendar, IV, 495. 

The Siamese calendar, XXI, 893. 

The Gregorian calendar, IV, 595. 

The famous Mexican calendar-stone, 
I, 610. 

The peculiar terms used in almanacs 
and calendars are also explained, as : 



Time 



Chronological eras or epochs, IV, 604; 
V, 617. 

Epact, IV, 596. 

Dominical letter, IV, 593, etc. 

The various methods of measuring 
time are described in XXIII, 
418. 

Difference between mean time and 
sidereal time, VI, 14. 

Equation of time in astronomy, II, 675. 

Timepieces, VI, 13; XXIV, 415. 

Sun-dials, VII, 132. 

Clocks, VI, 13, and XXVI, 203; Watches, 
XXIV, 415. 

Standard time, XXIX, 148. 



CHAPTER X 

A General Course of Eeading in Biology 

"Full nature swarms with life." 

— Thomson, The Seasons. 



Biology in its widest sense is the sci- 
ence of life and living things. It there- 
fore includes Zoology and Botany, to 
which separate chapters are devoted in 
this Guide. The following general 
course of reading, although far from ex- 
haustive, includes several chapters on 
subjects relating to the foundation prin- 
ciples of the science. It is distinctively 
a course for advanced students. 

Biology, III, 587. 

Protoplasm, XIX, 850, 15, 24, 50. 
Morphology, XVI, 863. 
Histology, XII, 6; III, 589; 
XVI, 867. 

Differentiation, XVI, 85. 

Taxonomy, II, 44; III, 591. 

Classification, botanical, XVI, 871, 
XXVI, 188-90; zoological, II, 44. 



General 
Topics 



Distribution, III, 591; of animals, VII, 
232; of plants, VII, 248. 

Geological distribution of animals, 
VII, 244. 

Continuity of life, HI, 592. 

Physiology, III, 592. 

Animal physiology, XIX, 13. 

Human physiology, XVII, 686. 

Vegetable physiology, XIX, 50. 

Reproduction, XX, 419. 

Gemmation, XXIII, 657. 

Fission, III, 593. 

Agamogenesis, XIIT, 153. 

Hereditary transmission, III, 594. 

Heredity, I, 82; XXVII, 275. 

Variation and Selection, XXIV, 83. 

Individuality, III, 595. 

Parasitism, XVIII, 262. 

Etiology, HI, 595. 



58 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Eyolution 



Abiogenesis, I, 51. 
Biogenesis, III, 596. 

Epigenesis, XI, 451. 

Embryology, XXVI, 559. 
Species, XXII, 385. 

Origin of Species, Darwin on, XXIV, 
84, 89; Lamarck on, XIV, 231. 
Evolution, VIII, 652. 
Neo-Darwinism, XXVIII, 195. 
Phylogeny, II, 44; III, 597. 
See, also Haeckel, XX, 434; Darwin, 

XXVI, 358; Lamarck, XIV, 231; Huxley, 

XXVII, 346; Weismann, XXIX, 516; Neo- 
Lamarckism, XXVIII, 195. 



The Vegetable Kingdom. See Read- 
ings in Botany, in this Guide. 
vegetable Limits and classification, III, 

Kingdom 597 

Thallophyta, XX, 443; XXIV, 136. 

Cormophyta, III, 600. 

The Animal Kingdom. See Readings 
in Zoology, Chapter XI, in this Guide. 

Acclimatization, I, 80. 
""Kingdom Breeds and Breeding, IV, 219. 
Hybridism, XII, 437. 

Instinct, XIII, 164. 

Animal Mechanics, XV, 783. 

Longevity of Animals, XIV, 868. 



CHAPTER XI 
Readings in Zoology 



" I used to believe a great deal more in opportunities and less in 
application than I do now. Time and health are needed, but with 
these there are always opportunities. Rich people have a fancy for 
spending money very uselessly on their culture, because it seems to 
them more valuable when it has been costly ; but the truth is, that by 
the blessing of good and cheap literature, intellectual light has become 
almost as accessible as daylight." — Philip Gilbert Hamerton. 



Three 
Courses 



The amount and variety of informa- 
tion which the Britannica offers on all 
subjects connected with the 
natural sciences is truly won- 
derful. The articles on Zool- 
ogy, or animal life, are very numerous — 
some of them brief descriptive para- 
graphs, instructive and interesting to 
every reader; others exhaustive trea- 
tises designed for the study of special- 
ists. The vast range of such subjects 
can perhaps best be illustrated by refer- 
ence to the following schemes for courses 
of reading in this science. The first two 
are of a popular character, and are be- 
lieved to be not too difiBcult for the home 



student or amateur zoologist ; the third 
is more purely scientific, and will be 
appreciated only by those who have 
already made considerable progress in 
the study, and are able to understand 
its technical difiiculties. 

I. historical coukse. 

In Volume XXIV, 838-842, the history 
of the science of zoology is treated in a 
Progress manner which appeals to the 
of the interest of every person who 
Science ^aros to acquaint himself with 
the progress of scientific ideas. After 
reading this, the student will naturally 
turn to the biographical sketches of the 



READINGS IN ZOOLOGY 



59 



Blograpbies 



great men who have contributed most 
to our knowledge of this subject. The 
following articles will be especially in- 
teresting and instructive : 

Aristotle, the most famous 
of the ancient writers on this 
subject, II, 448. 

Edward Wotton (1492-1555), the earli- 
est English zoologist, XXIV, 842. 

William Harvey (1578-1658), the dis- 
coverer of the circulation of the blood, 
and the propounder of the theory of 
epigenesis, XI, 448. 

Conrad Gesner, the eminent Swiss 
naturalist of the XVIth century, X, 495, 

John Ray (1628-1705), "the father of 
modern zoology," XX, 313. 

Carl Linnaeus, " the Adam of zoologi- 
cal science," XIV, 677. 

Comte de Buffon, the first great popu- 
larizer of natural history, IV, 397. 

Gilbert White, author of "The Nat- 
ural History of Selborne," XXIV, 580. 

Baron Cuvier, the eminent French 
naturalist, VI, 653. 

Charles Darwin, the great leader of 
evolutionary biology, XXVI, 358. 

Ernst Haeckel, the famous German 
disciple of the doctrine of evolution, 
XX, 434. 

Alfred Russel Wallace, author of 
" The Geographical Distribution of Ani- 
mals," XXIX, 472. 

Albrecht von Haller, the Swiss physi- 
ologist, XI, 354. 

Johannes Miiller, the German anato- 
mist, XVII, 22. 

Jean Baptiste Lamarck, a pre-Dar- 
winian evolutionist, XIV, 231. 

Louis L. R. Agassiz, the great Swiss- 
American naturalist, I, 245. 

John Swammerdam, XXII, 768. 

Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, XIV, 411. 

Rene A. F. de Reaumur, XX, 321. 

Charles Bonnet, IV, 31. . 



Frangois Huber, XII, 341. 

Asa Gray, the great American botan- 
ist, XXVII, 147. 

Sir John Lubbock, XXVII, 640. 

Thomas Henry Huxley, the English 
naturalist, XXVII, 346. 

Ernst von Baer, founder of the science 
of embryology, XXIV, 846. 

Sir Richard Owen, the foremost of the 
disciples of Cuvier, XXVIII, 306. 

John Vaughan Thompson, the great 
authority on marine invertebrata, XXIV, 
847. 

Theodore Schwann, inventor of the 
cell theory, XXI, 481. 

John James Audubon, the greatest of 
ornithologists. III, 62. 

Alexander Wilson, the Scottish- Amer- 
ican ornithologist, XXIV, 621. 

Spencer F. Baird, secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, XXV, 328. 

James Cossar Ewart, founder of ma- 
rine laboratories, XXVI, 599. 

G. Brown Goode, director of the Na- 
tional Museum, XXVII, 123. 

Joseph Leidy, American biologist, 
XXVII, 573. 

Lewis Le Conte, American naturalist, 
XXVII, 565. 

II. POPULAR READINGS ABOUT ANIMALS. 

As an introduction to these readings 
it will be interesting to notice the his- 
torical paragraphs in the arti- 
cle on Zoology, XXIV, 838-42. 
Read also the first section of the article 
on Mammalia, XV, 349, and the last sec- 
tion of the same article, XV, 451. 

Many things in the article on Anthro- 
pology, 11, 94-109, are both curious and 
instructive; but for the present the 
reader's attention is directed only to 
the section on the Origin of Man, page 
97, and that on the Races of Mankind, 
page 98. 



Mammalia 



30 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



The article on the Ape, II, 130-48, by 
Professor St. George Mivart, is a com- 
plete popular and scientific description 
of the various families and groups of 
monkeys. The general reader will be 
interested in the first section, pages 
130-37, and also in the concluding sec- 
tions, relating to the geographical dis- 
tribution, etc., of apes. 

The Elephant is the subject of an im- 
portant article, VIII, 116. His prehis- 
toric relatives or progenitors are also 
appropriately described: the Mammoth, 
XV, 454; the Mastodon, XV, 628; and the 
Megatherium, XV, 837. 

Perhaps the most interesting of all 
domestic animals is the Camel. See 
the general article, IV, 650, and also 
the section on the camel in Arabia, II, 
211. 

Interesting articles — historical and 
descriptive, and illustrated — are those 
on the Horse, XII, 176; the Dog, VII, 
281; and the Cat, V, 178. 

Carnivorous animals are represented 
by the Tiger, XXIII, 411; the Lion, XIV, 
685; and the Hyena, XII, 436. 

Some curious animals are: the Beaver, 
III, 410; the Chamois, V, 333; the Sloth, 
XXII, 171; the Ichneumon, XII, 665. 

Of the long and very comprehensive 
article on Birds, III, 604, the general 
reader can select the following 
chapters as the most interest- 
ing: Fossil birds, III, 631; migration of 
birds. III, 662; birds' eggs. III, 669. The 
different classes of birds are variously 
represented and described in a large 
number of separate articles. For the 
present it is unnecessary to call atten- 
tion to any of these articles further 
than to say that no popular course of 
reading should omit the Ostrich, XVIII, 
65; the Rhea, XX, 519; the Eagle, VII, 
509; the Raven, XX, 308; the Humming- 



Birds 



Fishes 



bird, XII, 371; or the Albatross, I, 398. 

The Dodo, that wonderful bird which 

has but lately become extinct, is the 

subject of an interesting sketch, VII, 

278. 
A general study of fishes, such as is 

contemplated in this course, should in- 
clude a glance at the special 
article, XII, 666, and also a 

portion of the chapter on fish-culture, 

XIX, 135. The article on Angling, II, 
30, will be read and enjoyed by every 
angler. Among the multitude of simi- 
lar articles, the following on food fishes 
should not be omitted: Salmon, XXVIII, 
654; Mackerel, XV, 160; Herring, XI, 
683; Cod, VI, 95; Sardine, XXI, 322. 
Fossil fishes are noticed in I, 246, and 
poisonous fishes in XV, 792. See also 

Spencer F. Baird, XXV, 328, and Seth 
Green, XXVII, 164, the famous fish-cul- 
turists. 

David Starr Jordan, the American 
ichthyologist, XXVII, 462. 

Aquarial Building, XXIX, 600; and 
Fisheries Building, XXIX, 599. 

As to reptiles, read the following: Gen- 
eral Characters of the Class Reptilia, 
XX, 454; the Division of 
Beptilia into Orders, XX, 454- 
57; Distribution of reptiles in time, 

XX, 478; Rattlesnake, XX, 305; Cobra, 
VI, 83; Asp, II, 624; Crocodile, VI, 524; 
Lizard, XIV, 738; Chameleon, V, 331; 
Tortoise, XXIII, 484. 

Concerning Crustacea there is a val- 
uable article in VI, 558; but our popular 
course will include only the chapters 
relating to the Crab, VI, 477, and the 
Lobster, VI, 582. 

Ocean life is noticed in an interesting 
way in VII, 240-244. The articles on 
the "Whale, XXIV, 551; the 
Walrus, XXIV, 357; the Dol- 
phin, VII, 300; the Seal, XXI, 607; and 



Reptiles 



Ocean Life 



READINGS IN ZOOLOGY 



61 



the Oyster, XXVIIl, 309-10, are particu- 
larly interesting. 

The above lists include only a very 
small portion of the articles on animals. 
These are sufficient, however, to indicate 
the great variety of interesting and 
practical information on zoological sub- 
jects contained in the pages of the 
Britannica. 

This course of reading might be ex- 
tended indefinitely until it would em- 
brace many hundreds of subjects, and 
require half a lifetime for its comple- 
tion. The purpose of the Guide, how- 
ever, has been not to present an exhaus- 
tive course, but only to indicate that 
which may be completed easily by the 
amateur student within a comparatively 
brief period of time. A still briefer and 
much easier course is indicated in Chap- 
ter IV of this Guide. 

III. SUPPLEMENTARY COURSE FOR SPECIAL 
STUDENTS. 

The principal articles on zoological 
subjects, written by specialists and em- 
bodying the latest discoveries, are par- 
ticularly valuable to advanced students. 
They are remarkable alike for their 
comprehensiveness and their accuracy. 
Taken together, they would form a com- 
plete library of zoology in themselves. 

After reading the history of the science 

as it is related in XXIV, 838-842, to- 
gether with the biographical 
ciassiflca- gifgi^^hes indicated in Course I 

tion 

above, the student will be pre- 
pared to make some study of the various 
forms of classification that have been 
proposed by great naturalists. Most of 
these may be found in the special arti- 
cle on Zoology, already alluded to: 

Aristotle's XXIV, 842. 

The Linn^an, XXIV, 843. 

Lamarck's XXIV, 845. 



Cuvier's, XXIV, 845. 

Owen's, XXIV, 846. 

Huxley's, XXIV, 847. 

A valuable scientific article on classi- 
fication, written by Huxley himself, may 
be found in II, 44. Keeping Huxley's 
classification in mind, the student who 
cares to go so deeply into the subject 
may obtain a general and complete view 
of the science of zoology by studying 
the following articles in the order here 
given: 

I. Protozoa, XIX, 852 — a valuable arti- 
cle, very finely illustrated. 

II. Infusoria, XXII, 113. 

III. Ccelenterata, VI, 98 — a short arti- 
cle, purely scientific. Under this sub- 
kingdom, see also Hydrozoa, XII, 580, 
and Actinozoa, I, 119. 

IV. Annuloida. See Echinodermata, 
VII, 544. 

V. Annulosa. Under this sub-king- 
dom there may be many references. 
We give only a few: 

Crustacea, VI, 558. 
Arachnida, II, 237. 
Myriapoda, XVII, 122, and V, 295. 
Insecta, XIII, 147 (see Index, 460). 
Chsetognatha (marine worms), XXI, 
156, and II, 47. 
Annelida, II, 58. 

VI. Molluscolda, IV, 170. Under this 
sub-kingdom, see: 

Polyzoa, XIX, 443. 
Brachiopoda, IV, 170. 
Tunicata, XXIII,647;II, 48. 

VII. Mollusca, XVI, 654; II, 48. Under 
this sub-kingdom, refer to the following 
subjects : 

Lamellibranchiata, XVI, 710. 
Gastropoda, XVI, 667. 
Pteropoda, XVI, 689. 
Cephalopoda, VI, 648. 

VIII. Vertebmta, XXIV, 193. Under 
this sub-kingdom hundreds of references 



62 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Fishes 



might be given. The following articles 
and paragraphs will be found especially- 
valuable : 

Class 1. Pisces. See Ichthyologij, XII, 
666; distribution of marine fishes, VII, 
243, XII, 715; freshwater fishes, XII, 708; 
fishes of America, I, 601; geographical 
distribution of fishes, XII, 707; 
fishes of prehistoric times, XII, 
705; Agassiz's researches in fossil fishes, 
I, 245; angling, II, 30; aquariums, II, 
189. Several special articles may be 
of interest to the general reader, such 
as : 

Sea fisheries, IX, 211. 

Mackerel, XV, 160. 

Cod, VI, 95. 

Sturgeon, XXII, 643. 

Fish-culture, XII, 703; XIX, 135; XXVI, 
653. 

Angling, II, 30. 

Izaak Walton, XXIV, 362. 

David Starr Jordan, XXVII, 462. 

Class 2. Amphibia, I, 657. 

Class 3. Reptilia, XX, 444; snakes, 
XXII, 199; crocodiles, VI, 524; alligators, 
I, 515; the tortoise (including the turtle 
and the terrapin), XXIII, 484. 

Class 4. Aves. See Birds, III, 604; 
distribution of, HI, 639, VII, 235; birds 
of America, I, 601. Turn to the special 
article, Ornithology, XVIII, 6. The 
history of this science, as narrated in 
the first pages of this article, is espe- 
cially interesting. The list of 
leading works on birds, XVIII, 
14-23, is very complete and valuable. 
The titles of hundreds of articles 
referring to different birds might be 
given, but we quote only a few; 
for example, in volume VI are such 
articles as the following: Cockatoo, p. 
90; Condor, p. 225; Coot, p. 303; Cor- 
morant, p. 361; Crane, p. 484; Crow, 
p. 545; Cuckoo, p. 605; Curassow, p. 



Birds 



MammaUa 



626; Curlew, p. 628. But the student 
needs no guide to find such articles as 
these. 

Class 5. Mammalia, XV, 349 — a very 
comprehensive and scientific article, 
fully illustrated. 

Classification of Mammalia, XV, 
373. 

History of Mammalia in former 
times, XV, 377. See also Palaeon- 
tology, X, 282. 

Subclass Echidna, VII, 543. 

Subclass Metatheria, XV, 380; Mar- 
supials, XIII, 848; Kangaroo, III, 97. 

Subclass Eutheria, order Edentata, 

VII, 566; Sloth, XXII, 171; Armadillo, 
II, 477; Aard-vark, I, 10; Anteater, XV, 
388, etc. 

Order Sirenia, XV, 392; the Manatee, 
XV, 463, etc. 

Order Cetacea, V, 310; Whale, XXIV, 
551; Porpoise, XIX, 536; Dolphin, VII, 
300, etc. 

Order Insectivora, XV, 403. 

Order Chiroptera, XV, 409; Bats, III, 
372. 

Order Rodentia, XV, 420; Squirrels, 
XXII, 454; Rabbits, XX, 199; Hares, XI, 
425, etc. 

Order Ungulata, XV, 427; Elephant, 

VIII, 116; Rhinoceros, XX, 535; Horse, 
XII, 176; Zebra, XXIV, 810; Deer, VII, 
22, etc. 

Order Carnivora, XV, 438; Cat, V, 
178; Dog, VII, 281; Bear, III, 398; 
Lion, XIV, 685; Tiger, XXIII, 411; 
Puma, XX, 110; Jaguar, XIII, 551, 
etc. 

Order Primates, II, 96; Lemur, XIV, 
440; Monkey, II, 130; Man, XV, 451, and 
11,94, etc. 

miscellaneous readings. 

The student who has followed this 
course of reading to the present point 



READINGS IN BOTANY 



63 



Special 
Articles 



will now be prepared to notice the fol- 
lowing important special articles : 
Anthropology, 11, 91. 
Animism, II, 49. 
Biology, III, 587. 

Evolution, VIII, 652. 

Neo-Darwinism, XXVIII, 195. 

Variation and selection, XXIV, 83. 

Acclimatization, I, 80. 

Reproduction, XX, 419. 

Parthenogenesis, XXVIII, 340. 

Embryology, VIII, 150. A valuable 
supplementary article, giving an ac- 
count of the latest discoveries and the- 
ories in this department of science, may 
be found in XXVI, 559-68. 



Breeds and Breeding, IV, 219. 

Hybridism, XII, 437. 

Distribution of Animals, VII, 232. 

Longevity of Animals, XIV, 868. 

Animal Physiology, XIX, 13. 

Animal Heat, XXV, 195. 

Animal Magnetism, XV, 279. 

Animal Mechanics, XV, 783. 

Sense-Organs, XXIX, 54. 

Segmentation of the Vertebrate Head 
and Brain, XXIX, 46. 

Instinct, XIII, 164. 

Histology, XII, 6. 

See General Course of Reading in Biol- 
ogy, Chapter X, for a more logical ar- 
rangement of these subjects. 



CHAPTER XII 



Readings in Botany. 

" In my garden I spend my days ; in my library I spend my nights. 
My interests are divided between my geraniums and my books." 

— Alexander Smith. 



The reader who wishes to acquire a 
general knowledge of the subject of 
botany may begin by reading 
*^Bot*anists ^^^ chapter on the history of 
botanical science, IV, 70. Af- 
ter this, read the biographies of the 
famous men who have contributed most 
to the advancement of this science. 
Among these the following are named 
as among the most important ; 

The elder Pliny, the first who made 
any extensive catalogue of plants, XIX, 
235. 

Andreas Csesalpinus, the great Flor- 
entine botanist of the 16th century, IV, 
562. 

John Ray, the originator of the " nat- 
ural system" of classification, XX, 313. 



Joseph P. de Tournefort, the foremost 
French botanist of the 17th century, 
XXIII, 521. 

Carl Linnaeus, the real founder of the 
science, XIV, 677. 

Jussieu, a famous French family of 
botanists, XIII, 797. 

Robert Brown, the first British botan- 
ist to adopt and support the " natural 
system," IV, 347. 

Augustin P. De Candolle, the Swiss 
botanist, who modified Jussieu's system 
of classification, VII, 17; IV, 71a-72b. 

Sir William J. Hooker, XII, 156-57, 
and his son, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, 
XXVII, 317. 

Stephen L. Endlicher, the Austrian 
botanist, XXVI, 574. 



64 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



John Lindley, XIV, 669. 

George Bentham, XXV, 429. 

Asa Gray, the well-known American 
botanist, XXVII, 147. 

John M. Coulter, author of many of 
the articles on botanical subjects in the 
Supplements to the Britannica, XXVI, 
294. 

After having read these biographical 
sketches, turn again to the special arti- 
cle on Botany, IV, 70-149, and notice 
the comprehensive manner in which the 
subject is there treated. This article 
comprises much more matter than is 
contained in the ordinary school text- 
books, and, as you will see, is profusely 
and beautifully illustrated with numer- 
ous full-page plates. 

If it is your wish to make a thorough 
study of the anatomical structure of 
plants, their arrangement and classifi- 
cation, their distribution over the globe, 
and the uses to which they are subservi- 
ent, you will find this article 

information that you want. 
We will suppose, however, that you pre- 
fer, instead of studying every portion of 
this article, to use it for purposes of 
reference, and in order to supplement 
the information which you obtain from 
other sources. If this be the case, con- 
sult the " Index of Principal Subjects," 
IV, 148. Even if you are making only 
a hasty and superficial survey of this 
delightful science, you will find several 
chapters in this article worthy of your 
attention. Here are a few which you 
cannot afford to pass unnoticed: 

Different parts of flowers, p. 113; es- 
sential organs of flowers, p. 121; respi- 
ration of plants, p. 107; pollen, p. 125; 
fertilization, p. 133; mosses, p. 96; 
lichens, p. 96; leaves, pp. 96-107; fruit, 
pp. 134-39. 



One of the most important articles to 
aid in the systematic study of this sci- 
ence is that on Classification by Prof. 
John M. Coulter, XXVI, 188-90. 

The article on Ecology, XXVI, 484, 
a new department of plant physiology, 
is indispensable to all advanced stu- 
dents. 

The article on Morphology of Plants, 
XXVIII, 139, is equally lucid, scientific, 
and comprehensive. 

Other articles relating to botanical 
topics are numerous. Any lover of 
flowers who does not care to pursue a 
course of reading may while away many 
pleasant hours in perusing chapters like 
the following : 

Distribution of plants, VII, 248. 

Propagation of plants, XII, 215, 240. 

Reproduction of plants, XX, 435; 
XXVIII, 575. 

Ancestry of plants, XXV, 182. 

Fertilization by insects, XIII, 148. 

Linnseus's classification of plants, 
XIV, 678. 

Morphology, XVI, 863. 

Alternation of generation, X'XV, 149. 

Assimilation in plants, XXV, 275. 

Physiology of plants, XIX, 50. 

Insectivorous plants, XIII, 140. 

Parasitic plants, XVIII, 268. 

The article on the Vegetable King- 
dom, XXIV, 136-43, contains a complete 
classification of plants. 

Read also: 

Botanic Gardens, XXV, 553. 

Algee I, 448; XXV, 129. 

Fungus, IX, 726. 

Lichens, XIV, 555. 

Hepaticse, XIV, 724. 

Muscinese, XVII, 71. 

In pursuing the study of botany in a 
practical way, it is of course necessary 
that you should acquire a knowledge 



READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY 



65 



of plants at first hand, through per- 
sonal observation. You must, therefore, 

make a collection of plants 
*Hertarium ^nd arrange an herbarium 

for your own use and study. 
Full directions for doing this may be 
found in XI, 639. 

For further reference to plants, their 
culture, uses, etc., see the chapters in 
this volume entitled, The Gardener, The 
Fruit-Groicer, and The Woodsman. In 
the first w^ill be found a series of read- 



Further 

studies 



ings on the propagation and care of 
flowers and vegetables ; and in the others 
some interesting and curious 
matter pertaining to trees, their 
modes of growth, their history, 
and their uses in the world's economy. 
It is well to remember that all the most 
important trees and plants in existence 
are the subjects of special articles in the 
Britannica. These may readily be found 
in their proper alphabetical place or by 
consulting the Index volume. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Readings in Gteography 
What a world is this ! " — As You Like It. 
I. HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 



No TEACHER of geography can afford 
to be without the Encyclopcedia Brit- 
annica. In its pages are found a wealth 
and variety of matter pertaining to 
this science which it is impossible to 
find in any similar work. By reference 
to its numerous geographical articles 
all difficult questions may be easily 
solved, and a store of information 
may be acquired which will be of in- 
finite value at times when it is needed 
most. 

The teaching of geography began in 
very ancient times. The people of 

antiquity knew but very lit- 
Geography ^le about the earth, it is 

true; but they were anxious 
to perpetuate and extend that knowl- 
edge. Among the Greeks it was cus- 
tomary to lay particular stress upon 
the teaching of the second book of 
the Iliad, for that book contains, in 
connection with the "catalogue of 

5 



ships," a brief notice of the geography 
of the countries known at the time 
of the Trojan war. (See Homer, XII, 
111; Iliad, XI, 122; Troy, XX, 653.) 
Among ancient travellers and explor- 
ers the following are specially worthy 
of note: 

Hanno, the Carthaginian, who is be- 
lieved to have reached the Sargasso 
Sea, in the mid-Atlantic, and who 
wrote the Periplus, probably the earli- 
est known geographical work, XI, 398 b. 

Herodotus, who travelled in Scythia, 
Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 
XI, 676. 

Pytheas, from whom we derive our 
earliest knowledge of Britain, XX, 149. 

Nearchus, the famous admiral of 
Alexander the Great's fleet, XVII, 314, 
whose voyage synchronized with that 
of Pytheas (about 330 b. c). 

The first person who attempted to 
reduce geography to a science was 



66 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Eratosthenes (VIII, 459); and when we 
consider how limited was his knowl- 
edge of the subject we are surprised 
that he succeeded so well. He was 
followed by Hipparchus (XV, 523), who 
proposed a method for determining 
the relative position of places upon 
the earth; and by Pliny the Elder 
(XIX, 235), who gave a geographical 
account of the known world. Later 
came Ptolemy, the greatest of all the 
ancient geographers (XX, 92). His 
maps are the most ancient that have 
come down to us. (For a copy of his 
map of the world, see XV, 524.) Strabo, 
who was a century or two earlier, was 
perhaps even more scientific in his 
methods and conclusions than Ptolemy 
(XXII, 609). 

During the Middle Ages, geography 
was taught in the monastic schools. 
(See trivium and quadriviiim, 
"^Ag^s *''''' XX, 529 b.'") In the course of 
study it was placed under the 
head of geometry; but the "geometry" 
of these schools consisted chiefly of an 
abridgment of Ptolemy's or Pliny's ge- 
ography (X, 158; XIX, 235), to which 
the definitions of a few geometric forms 
had been added. For a thousand years 
absolutely no advance was made in 
either the knowledge of geography or 
the methods of teaching it. 

The first modern impetus to discovery 
was given by the invention of the 
mariner's compass (VI, 200), which was 
followed by a corresponding extension 
of geographical knowledge. Then came 
the invention of the astrolabe (XVII, 
258). Then Prince Henry the Navi- 
Birthof gator began his career of ex- 
Modem ploration (XI, 599); Columbus 
Geography gg^^g a new impetus to the 
study of geography by discovering a new 
continent (VI, 153); and Magellan's ex- 



pedition gave another impetus to it by 
circumnavigating the globe. Other bold 
adventurers sailed the seas and added 
their contributions to mankind's stock 
of knowledge concerning the world and 
its inhabitants. See Hakluyt, XI, 338, 
and Purchas, XX, 120. 

But the history of the progress of 
geographical study is given in full, and 
with many interesting details, in the 
Britannica. See Geography, X, 157. 

In obtaining a knowledge of the his- 
tory of this subject, the following arti- 
cles will be found full of information: 

Globe, X, 606. 

Maps, XV, 522; earliest forms of maps, 
XX, 96, 100; classes of maps, X, 171; 
Mercator's map, XVII, 260. 

Navigation, XVII, 257. 

Promoters of MarCO Polo, XIX, 417. 

Knowledge''* Varenius, XXIV, 76. 

Kennell, XX, 409. 
Eitter, XX, 585. 
Petermann, XXVIII, 394-95. 
See also Polar Explorations since 1880, 
XXVIII, 448. 
Henry M. Stanley, XXIX, 149, 

II. A VIEW OF THE WORLD. 

On the orthography of geographic 
names, see XXVII, 77. 

Every reader of the Britannica will of 
course understand that all articles de- 
The world scriptivc of the continents, 
as a and indeed of every place of 
^^°^® importance in the world, are 
to be found in their appropriate places 
in the different volumes of this work. 
Hence it is not necessary to encum- 
ber the pages of the Guide with mere 
lists of such articles. The titles of 
some of these articles may by grouped 
together, however, according to topics, 
in such a way as to indicate a number 
of brief courses of reading on geograph- 



READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY 



61 



Land 



Water 



ical subjects. Begin, for example, with 
the world as a whole. Read the article 
on Physical Geography, X, 188; then 
take up the following in their order: 

The Globe, X, 606-11 ; the Relief Globe, 
XXVII, 109. 

Maps, XV, 522-30. 

The Ocean, X, 189, 197, 250. 

Atlantic Ocean, III, 15. 

Pacific Ocean, XVIII, 118. 

Indian Ocean, XII, 860. 

Ocean Currents, III, 15, X, 250. 

Currents of the Pacific Ocean, XVIII, 
121. 

Currents of the Indian Ocean, XII, 861. 

The Continents: Europe, VIII, 597; 
Asia, II, 596; Africa, I, 219; Australia, 
III, 89; America, I, 587. 
Seas, XXI, 605 (see Index 
volume, page 810); Mediterranean Sea, 
XV, 828; Red Sea, XX, 328; Aral Sea, 
II, 268; Black Sea, III, 690; 
Caspian, V, 153; Baltic, III, 
253; North, XVII, 576; Caribbean, V, 
91, etc. 

Lakes (special article), XIV, 217. 

Rivers, XX, 586; The Amazon, I, 575, 
592; Mississippi, XVI, 541; Yukon, I, 
393, XXV, 115, 116; Nile, XVII, 517, 

VII, 611; Niger, XVII, 510; Congo, 
XXIV, 801; Indus, XII, 888; Euphrates, 

VIII, 586; Ganges, X, 62; Rhine, XX, 
533; Danube, VI, 721. 

Cataracts and Waterfalls, XXVI, 85. 

Mountains, XVII, 10; Alps, I, 544; 
Atlas, III, 25; Apennines, II, 149; Ap- 
palachian, II, 175; Andes, II, 15; Rocky, 

XXIII, 846; Himalaya, XI, 733; Ural, 

XXIV, 7; Pyrenees, XX, 132. 

III. MAPS IN THE BRITANNICA. 

To the student of geography, one of 
the most instructive articles in the Bri- 
tannica is that on the making of maps, 
XV, 522. The account therein given of 



Historical 



the first essays in map-making is partic- 
ularly interesting. This is followed by 
chapters on the development of map- 
making among the Greeks, XV, 523; on 
map-making among the Romans, page 
524; on map-making in the Middle Ages, 
page 524; on nautical maps, page 525; 
on the maps of Ptolemy and his success- 
ors, page 527; on the period of triangu- 
lations and geodetic surveys, page 529. 
In connection with this article, the curi- 
ous reader will find a double-page col- 
ored illustration comparing Ptolemy's 
map of the world with the actual posi- 
tions and distances, thus showing that, 
however inaccurate it may have been in 
details, it was nevertheless constructed 
according to strictly scientific methods, 
and in that respect was perfectly correct. 
An outline of Mercator's map 
of the world, drawn in 1569, is 
another interesting feature of this ar- 
ticle, XV, 528. The Borgia map, X, 161, 
made in the 15th century, just before 
the discovery of the Western Hemis- 
phere, is not only a great curiosity, but 
worthy of study, as illustrating the 
ideas of learned men in the Middle Ages 
concerning the shape and extent of the 
earth. The Lenox Globe, represented in 
X, 607, and supposed to have been con- 
structed in 1506-07, illustrates the next 
step in the advancement of geographical 
knowledge. 

The maps in the Encyclopcedia Britan- 
nica, if collected in a single volume, 
would form one of the most complete 
and convenient atlases ever published. 
But since these maps are necessarily 
somewhat widely scattered through the 
various volumes of the Encyclopcedia, 
few people realize the extent and im- 
portance of this feature. In fact, there 
is no country on the globe that is not 
accurately represented in these pages. 



68 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



COLORED MAPS. 

Africa, I, 218. 

Alabama — county map, I, 388. 

America, North, I, 587. 

America, South, I, 624. 

Arabia, II, 204. 

Argentina, II, 429. 

Arizona — county map, II, 472. 

Arkansas — county map, II, 473. 

Armenia, XV, 93. 

Asia, II, 596. 

Asia Minor, XV, 93. 

Australia, III, 88. 

Austria-Hungary, III, 106. 

Bengal and Assam, III, 485. 

Boston and Vicinity, XV, 617. 

Brazil, IV, 198. 

California and Nevada — county map, 
IV, 615. 

Canada, IV, 675. 

Cape Colony, V, 37. 

Central America, XI, 211. 

Chicago and Vicinity, XII, 742. 

China, V, 544. 

Coal Fields of Great Britain, VI, 47. 

Colorado — county map, VI, 145. 

Connecticut — county map, VI, 254. 

North Dakota — county map, VI, 681. 

South Dakota — county map, VI, 681. 

Denmark, VII, 70. 

Derby, England, VII, 92. 

Devon, England, VII, 120. 

Dorset, England, VII, 320. 

Durham, England, VII, 484. 

Egypt, VII, 607. 

England and Wales — county map, 
VIII, 195. 

Britain in 597, VIII, 245. 

English Empire in the 10th and 11th 
centuries, VIII, 245. 

England and France, in the time of 
Henry II, VIII, 272. 

England and France in 1360, VIII, 286. 



Essex, England, VIII, 487. 
Modern Europe, VIII, 597. 
Europe in the time of the Romans, 
VIII, 626. 

Europe in the time of Charlemagne, 
VIII, 627. 

Europe in the time of the Crusades, 
VIII, 627. 

Florida — county map, IX, 296. 

France, IX, 450." 

Georgia — county map, X, 390. 

The German Empire, X, 401. 

Gloucester, England, X, 613. 

Ancient Greece, XI, 73. 

Modern Greece, XI, 73. 

Guatemala, Honduras, etc., XI, 211. 

Hampshire, England, XI, 384. 

Hav^aiian Islands, XI, 471. 

Section of the Leadville Mining Dis- 
trict, XVI, 492. 

Hayti, XI, 471. 

Hereford, England, XI, 652. 

Hertford, England, XI, 668. 

The Himalaya Mountain Region, XI, 
733. 

Holland, XII, 61. 

Hungary ^ — showing political divisions, 
XII, 375. 

Huntingdon and Cambridge, England, 
XII, 412. 

Iceland, XII, 651. 

Idaho — county map, XII, 736. 

Illinois — county map, XII, 742. 

India — show^ing political divisions, 

XII, 769. 

Indiana — county map. XII, 852. 

lowa^ — county map, XIII, 213. 

Ireland, XIII, 220. 

Italy, XIII. 443. 

Jamaica, XIII, 558. 

Japan, XIII, 578. 

Java, XIII, 558. 

Ground Plan of Modern Jerusalem, 

XIII, 653. 

Kansas — county map, XIII, 851. 



READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY 



Kent, England, XIV, 38. 

Kentucky and Tennessee — county 
map, XIV, 43. 

Lanark, Scotland, XIV, 250. 

Lancashire, England, XIV, 252. 

Leicester and Rutland, England, XIV, 
424. 

Lincoln, England, XIV, 659. 

London, XIV, 827. 

Central London, XIV, 827. 

Louisiana — parish map, XV, 2L 

Lycaonia, Lycia, Lydia, XV, .98. 

Macedonia, XV, 137. 

Madagascar, XV, 168. 

Madeira, XV, 137. 

Maine — county map, XV, 299. 

The Malay Peninsula, XV, 328. 

Maltese Islands, XV, 137. 

Ptolemy's Map of the World, XV, 
524. 

Maryland and Delaware — county 
map, XV, 609. 

Massachusetts and Rhode Island — 
county map, XV, 617. 

Mesopotamia, XVI, 568. 

Mexico, XVI, 222. 

Michigan — county map, XVI, 246. 

Middlesex, England, XVI, 291. 

Minnesota — county map, XVI, 497. 

Mississippi — county map, XVI, 544. 

Missouri — county map, XVI, 547. 

The Mohammedan Empire, XVI, 568. 

Monmouth, England, XVI, 780. 

Montana — county map, XVI, 798. 

Morocco, XVI, 856. 

Nebraska — county map, XVII, 315. 

Nevada — county map, XVII, 376. 

New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 
XVII, 382. 

New Guinea and New Caledonia, 
XVII, 396. 

New Hampshire — county map, XVII, 
400. 

New Jersey — county map, XVII, 406, 

New Mexico — county map, XVII, 409. 



New South Wales — county map, 
XVII, 418. 

New York— county map, XVII, 462. 

New York City and Vicinity, XVII, 
469. 

New York City on larger scale (two 
sheets), XVII, 469. 

New Zealand, XVII, 479. 

The Region of the Nile, XVII, 517. 

Norfolk, England, XVII, 549. 

Northampton and Bedford, England, 

XVII, 569. 

North Carolina — county map, XVII, 
572. 

Northumberland, England, XVII, 578. 

Norway and Sweden, XVII, 588. 

Nottingham, England, XVII, 612. 

Ohio — county map, XVII, 754. 

Ontario — county map, XVII, 796. 

Oregon — county map, XVII, 845. 

Oxfordshire, Buckingham, etc., Eng- 
land, XVIII, 98. 

Pacific Ocean, showing depths and 
temperature, XVIII, 122. 

Pacific Ocean, showing currents and 
routes of travel, XVIII, 122. 

Palestine, XVIII, 174. 

Paris and its Environs, XVIII, 278. 

Pennsylvania — county map, XVIII 
509. 

Persia — Ancient Iran, XVIII, 573. 

Modern Persia, XVIII, 626. 

Peru — showing political divisions, 

XVIII, 682. 

Philadelphia (two sheets), XVIII, 
750. 
Philippine Islands, XVIII, 762. 
The Kingdom of Poland, XIX, 296. 
The Polar Regions, XIX, 327. 
Polynesia, XIX, 431. 
Portugal, XIX, 551. 
Prussia in 1786, XX, 6. 
Prussia in 1866, XX, 7. 
Quebec (Province of), XX, 171. 
Queensland, XX, 177. 



70 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Rhode Island and City of Providence, 
XX, 538. 

Roman Empire in the 3rd century, 
XX, 794. 

Ancient Rome, XX, 830. 

Modern Rome, XX, 854. 

Roumania and Servia, XXI, 18. 

Russia in Europe, XXI, 73. 

Russia from 1462 to 1689, XXI, 96. 

Accessions to Russia from 1689 to 
1825, XXI, 97. 

The basin of the St. Lawrence, XXI, 
186. 

Saxony, XXI, 366. 

Scotland in the 16th century, XXI, 
520. 

Scotland at the present day, XXI, 
543. 

Shropshire, England, XXI, 886. 

Siam, XXI, 890. 

Siberia, XXII, 5. 

Sicily, XXII, 19. 

Somerset, England, XXII, 270. 

South Australia, XXII, 297. 

South Carolina, XXII, 300. 

Spain and Portugal, XXII, 307. 

Suffolk, England, XXII, 653. 

Sumatra, XXII, 671. 

Surrey, England, XXII, 728. 

Sussex, England, XXII, 760. 

Switzerland, XXII, 814. 

Tasmania — county map, XXIII, 78. 

Tennessee and Kentucky — county 
map, XXIII, 192. 

Texas — county map, XXIII, 219. 

Tibet, XXIII, 359. 

Tripoli and Tunis, XXIII, 611. 

Turkey, XXIII, 694. 

North and South Virginia in 1620, 
XXIII, 776. 

English Colonies in America, XXIII, 
776. 

The United States, XXIII, 840. 

Territorial Growth of the United 
States, XXIII, 843. 



Rainfall Chart of the United States, 

XXIII, 854. 

Temperature Chart of the United 
States, XXIII, 854. 

Uruguay, XXIV, 19. 

Utah — county map, XXIV, 24. 

Vancouver's Island, XXIV, 64. 

Venezuela — showing political divi- 
sions, XXIV, 150. 

Vermont — county map, XXIV, 180. 

Victoria, Australia, XXIV, 232. 

Virginia — county map, XXIV, 274. 

Warwick, England, XXIV, 401. 

Washington (State) — county map, 

XXIV, 404. 

Western Australia, XXIV, 534. 
West Indies, XXIV, 537. 
West Indies — chart of sea depths, 
XXIV, 538. 
Westmoreland, England, XXIV, 541. 
West Virginia, XXIV, 546. 
Wiltshire, England, XXIV, 625. . 
Wisconsin — county map, XXIV, 649. 
Worcestershire, England, XXIV, 700. 
Wyoming — county map, XXIV, 748. 
Yorkshire, England, XXIV, 783. 

PLAIN MAPS. 

These are so numerous that we shall 
name only a few of the most important: 

Atlantic Ocean (showing currents), 
III, 16. 

The Bahama Islands, III, 204. 

Baluchistan, III, 258. 

Sketch map of Belgium, III, 444. 

Plan of Berlin. Ill, 513. 

Plan of Bristol, IV, 315. 

Map of Burmah, IV, 492. 

Plan of Calcutta, IV, 582. 

Maps of great canals, IV, 700, 701, 
XXVI, 44. 

Map of Ceylon, V, 312. 

Plan of Chicago, V, 530. 

Plan of Cincinnati, V, 684. 

Map of Constantinople, VI, 272. 



READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY 



71 



Plan of Copenhagen, VI, 305. 

Sketch-map of Corea, VI, 347. 

Map of Cornwall, England (double 
page), VI, 376. 

Map of Cumberland, England (double 
page), VI, 615. 

Plan of Edinburgh, VII, 573. 

Map of Mount ^tna and Vicinity, 
VIII, 550. 

Plan of Geneva, X, 132. 

Plan of Glasgow, X, 569. 

Map of Guiana, XI, 221. 

Plan of Halifax, XI,343 . 

Plan of Hamburg, XI, 362. 

Plan of Jersey City, XIII, 646. 

Plan of Lisbon, XIV, 697. 

Plan of Liverpool, XIV, 719. 

Norden's map of Tudor London, XIV, 
857. 

Map of Long Island, XIV, 876. 

Plan of Louisville, Ky., XV, 25. 

Plan of Madras, XV, 189. 

Plan of Madrid, XV, 191. 

The Maldive Islands, XV, 331. 

Plan of Manchester, XV, 467. 

Mercator's Nova et Auda Orhis De- 
scripUo, 1569, XV, 524. 

Plan of Marseilles, XV, 579. 

Map of Mauritius, XV, 646. 

Plan of Melbourne, XV, 845. 

Plan of Milan, XVI, 303. 

Map of Montenegro, XVI, 806. 

Plan of Montreal, XVI, 820. . 

Plan of Moscow, XVI, 884. 

Plan of Naples, XVII, 195. 

Map of Natal, XVII, 246. 

Plan of New Orleans, XVII, 413. 

New York in 1695 and 1728, XVII, 470. 

Plan of Olympia (Greece), XVII, 789. 

Plan of Pittsburg, XIX, 160. 

Plan of Pompeii, XIX, 461. 

Map of the Punjab, XX, 113. 

Plan of the Forum Romanum, XX, 833. 

Plan of the Palatine Hill, Rome, XX, 
842. 



St. Petersburg, XXI, 201. 

Geological map of Texas, XXIII, 220. 

Cotidal lines of the world, XXIII, 397. 

Turkestan, XXIII, 672. 

Map of Venice, XXIV, 170. 

Plan of Verona, XXIV, 185. 

Plan of Washington, D. C, XXIV, 404. 

IV. MISCELLANEOUS GEOGRAPHICAL SUB- 
JECTS. 

Some interesting and curious selec- 
tions worth reading in connection with 
the study of geography: 

Geographic names, XXVII, 77. 

The Sahara Desert, XXI, 157; 
Topicr^ latest discoveries in, XXV, 60. 
Dead Sea, VII, 3. 

Sargasso, Sea, III, 19, 24. 

Mount Vesuvius, XXIV, 212. 

Volcanoes, X, 214. 

Earthquakes, VII, 526. 

Mammoth Cave, XV, 455. 

Niagara Falls, XVII, 486; Yosemite 
Falls, IV, 619. 

The Black Forest, XXIV, 735. 

Gibraltar, British fortress in Spain, 
X, 520. 

Polar Regions, XIX, 327-43, and 
XXVIII, 448. These two articles give a 
complete history of arctic exploration 
and adventure from the earliest times 
to the present. 

Recent explorations in Africa, XXV, 59. 

Famous Cities and Towns; Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, I, 383; Alexandria, I, 436-38; 
Athens, III, 3; Baden-Baden, III, 195; 
Bagdad, III, 199; Benares, III, 
^^cmes ^78; Berlin, III, 512; Boston, IV, 
64; Bristol, IV, 314; Brooklyn, 
IV, 334; Brussels, IV, 363; Cabul,IV, 553; 
Cairo, IV, 572; Calcutta, IV, 582; Cam- 
bridge, IV, 644; Chicago, V, 530; Edin- 
burgh, VII, 569; Havana, XI, 467; London, 
XIV, 827 (see Index volume, page 538); 
Madrid, XV, 190; New Orleans, XVII, 



72 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



412; New York, XVII, 469 (see Index 
volume, page 634); Paris, XVIII, 278 (see 
Index volume, page 674); Rome, XX, 824 
(see Index volume, page, 774); St. Peters- 
burg, XXI, 199; Venice, XXIV, 153 (see In- 
dex volume, page 944) ; Vienna,XXIV, 237 ; 
Versailles, XXIV, 190; Jerusalem, XIII, 
646; Babylon, III, 157; Nineveh, XVII, 
625; Nippur, XXVIII, 247; Persepolis, 
XVIII, 569; Ispahan, XIII, 404; Palmyra, 
XVIII, 202; Damascus, VI, 696; Antioch, 
II, 115; Troy, XXIII, 614; Tyre, XXIII, 
757; Constantinople, VI, 269; Mecca, XV, 
676; Medina, XV, 826; Cordova, VI, 345. 

v. THE UNITED STATES. 

See the special article, XXIII, 777-886, 



Our Country 



and the index on the last page. See 
also the historical and statistical view 

of the United States, XXIX, 357. 

Both of these long articles are 
interesting and comprehensive, present- 
ing a complete exposition of the geo- 
graphical features of the country, to- 
gether with an account of its history, 
industries, and natural resources. 

Each of the States and Territories is 
treated in a similar manner, both in the 
body of the Britannica and also in the 
Supplements. For example, for Ari- 
zona, see II, 472, and XXV, 235; Arkan- 
sas, II, 473, and XXV, 238.. All these 
may be easily found without any further 
help from the Guide. 



CHAPTER XIV 
A Brief Course of Reading in Meteorology 

" When it is evening, ye say, It will be fair weather : for the 
sky is red. And in the morning. It will be foul weather to-day : 
for the sky is red and lowring." — St. Matthew. 



Meteorology, in its later and more 
strictly definite signification, is the sci- 
entific study of weather and climate, 
their causes, changes, relations, and ef- 
fects. In the Encyclopoidia Britannica 
there is a comprehensive treatise upon 
this science written by Professors A. 
Buchan, of Edinburgh, and Balfour 
Stewart, of the Royal Society of Lon- 
don. It embraces seventy 
*^Treatise double-coiumn pages, equal in 
matter to a duodecimo volume 
of more than 350 pages, and is fully 
illustrated. (See XVI, 119-92.) The 
supplementary article (XXVIII, 77) is 
equally valuable and comprehensive. 

A short and instructive course of 



reading in meteorology would include, 
besides the main points in these leading 
articles, the following references: 

Air, I, 379. 

Atmosphere, III, 26. 

Ozone, XVIII, 116. 

Temperature, XI, 495. (See general 
index.) 

Thermometer, XXIII, 308. 

Climate, VI, 3. 

Principal causes which determine cli- 
mate, VI, 4. 

Effect of vegetation on climate, VI, 5. 

Temperature of the sea, XVI, 121, 
137. 

Inflence of the Gulf Stream upon 
climate, HI, 19. 



A BRIEF COURSE OF READING IN METEOROLOGY 



73 



Temperature . 



Influence of the Kuro Siwo, or Japan 
current, XVIII, 122. 

Hygienic value of Ocean climate, 
VI, 6. 

Distribution of temperature, 
■ XVI, 139. 

Humidity of the air, XVI, 123; III, 30. 

Dew, XVI, 125. 

Barometer, III, 329. 

Atmospheric pressure, III, 26; XVI, 
144. 

Isobars, XVI, 146. 

Diurnal oscillations of the barometer, 
XVI, 125. 

Influence of the moon upon atmos- 
pheric pressure, XVI, 129. 

Winds, XVI, 148. 

Anemometer, II, 23. 

Relation of winds to climate, VI, 7. 

Variation in the direction of winds, 
XVI, 130. 
Trade winds, XVI, 148; in- 
fluence upon climate, I, 593. 

Monsoons, II, 603. 

The simoom, II, 208. 

Cyclones, III, 31; XVI, 160. 

Whirlwinds and waterspouts, XVI, 
134. 

Tornadoes, XXIII, 858. 

Typhoons, II, 603; XVI, 160; XXIII, 
718. 

Blizzards, XXV, 506. 

Hurricanes, XVI, 160. 



Winds 



Rain 



Prevailing winds, XVI, 148. 

Aqueous vapor, XVI, 143. 

Clouds, XVI, 131. 

Rainfall, XVI, 132, 155; influence upon 
climate, VI, 7; rain-gauge, XX, 268; con- 
nexion of sun-spots with rain- 
fall, IX, 25. 

Thunderstorms, XVI, 133. 

Hailstorms, XVI, 136. 

Snowstorms, XVI, 159. 

Hygrometry, XII, 603. 

Weather and weather maps, XVI, 
162. 

Weather forecasts, XVI, 163. 

American Weather Bureau, 

The Weather XXVTTT 77 
Bureau ' 

Increase Allen Lapham, 
founder of the weather bureau, XXVII, 
547. 

Flags used by the weather bureau, 
XXIX, 88. 

Terrestrial Magnetism, XVI, 164. 

The magnetometer, XV, 239. 

The declinometer, XVI, 164.* 
"rSL The dip circle, XVI, 165. 

Magnetic poles of the earth, 
XVI, 168. 

Influence of the sun upon terrestrial 
magnetism, XVI, 171, 175, 182, 186, 187, 
188. 

Optical Meteorology (see Optics). 

Aurora borealis and australis. III, 79; 
II, 688; influence of sun-spots on. III, 85. 



-trir-kir 
ir 



CHAPTER XV 



Readings in Mathematics 

"He apprehends a world of figures here."^ — -Henry TV. 

" Inquire about everything that you do not know ; since, for the 
small trouble of asking, you will be guided in the road of knowl- 
edge. — From the Persian. 



In the Britannica, each of the great 
branches of mathematical science is 
treated under its own head and at con- 
siderable length ; and yet it is 
"enceoniy ^^^^ presumed that any person 
will attempt to acquire the 
mastery of arithmetic, or algebra, or 
geometry from these articles. Here, if 
anywhere, the guidance of the living 
teacher and the assistance of specially 
prepared text-books are absolutely essen- 
tial. The mathematical treatises in the 
Britannica, therefore, are valuable chiefly 
for occasional reference ; they are not 
intended for general study, and certainly 
not for popular reading. Students and 
teachers, however, will frequently be 
able to derive valuable assistance from 
them in the solution of knotty problems 
or the elucidation of difficult proposi- 
tions. It is well, therefore, to remem- 
ber where they can be found. 

history of mathematics. 

The history of mathematics is a sub- 
ject in which every student, whether he 
be a mathematician or not, must feel 
no little interest; and it is to 
Ancient ^ knowledge of this subject 
matics rather than to the abstruse 
study of any particular branch 
of the science that the present course 
of reading points. It is supposed that 

(74) 



the reader has already some general ac- 
quaintance with the elementary prin- 
ciples of mathematics, derived, as is 
ordinarily the case, from the text-books 
used at school. These readings from the 
Britannica will supplement his present 
knowledge, and perhaps encourage him 
to advance farther in his acquisitions. 

The best introduction to this course 
is the short article on Mathematics, 
XV, 635. Read especially the historical 
parts, and omit, until a future time, such 
sections and paragraphs as seem too 
technical or too difficult for ready com- 
prehension. 

Notice what is said of Pythagorean 
mathematics, XX, 146, and of Hindu 
mathematics, XXI, 309. 

Now read the historical portion of 
the article on Arithmetic, II, 460-62. 
The paragraphs relating to the different 
methods of notation are specially in- 
teresting, and may be read in connection 
with the article on Numerals, XVII, 639. 
The biographies of the following distin- 
guished arithmeticians should be read 
next: 

Archimedes, the greatest mathemati- 
cian of ancient times, II, 332. 
Qreat Apollonius of Perga, who 

Mathema- flourished a little later than 

ticians Archimedes, II, 163. 
Diophantus, a Greek writer on arith- 



READINGS IN MATHEMATICS 



75 



Algebra 



metic and algebra, 4th century, I, 
451. 

Maximus Planudes (died 1350), re- 
ferred to in XVII, 641. 

Robert Recorde (1558), author of an 
algebra entitled The Whetstone of Witte, 
and of one of the first arithmetics pub- 
lished in English, XX, 323. 

Next turn to the history of algebra, I, 
451-56. Notice the list of writers on 
algebra, page 457. Read the following 
biographies of distinguished algebraists: 

Leonardus Pisanus (Leonardo of Pisa), 
XIX, 134-35. 

Girolamo Cardan (16th century), au- 
thor of the second printed book on al- 
gebra, V, 80. 
Frangois Vieta, "the father 
of modern algebra," XXIV, 241. 

Thomas Harriott, XI, 440; I, 454. 

Rene Descartes, VII, 101. 

Bonaventura Cavalieri, XIII, 7; XX, 
617 a.' 

Pierre de Fermat, IX, 80; XIII, 8. 

Gilles P. de Roberval, XX, 616; XIII, 
8,9. 

John Wallis, XXIV, 352. 

Christian Huygens, XII, 431. 

Isaac Barrow, III, 341; XIII, 9. 

Sir Isaac Newton, the inventor of the 
binomial theorem and of fluxions, XVII, 
449; XIII, 10. 

James Bernoulli, III, 522. 

John Bernoulli, III, 523. 

Leonhard Euler, demonstrator of the 
binomial theorem, VIII, 583. 

Jean le Rond D'Alembert, discoverer 
of " D'Alembert's Principle," VI, 682. 

Joseph L. Lagrange, XIV, 208. 

Pierre S. Laplace, XIV, 301. 

Jean B. J., Baron de Fourier, author 
of Fourier's theorem, IX, 433. 

Carl F. Gauss, X, 104. 

Jacques C. F. Sturm, author of Sturm's 
theorem, XXII, 645. 



Geometry 



Sir William Rowan Hamilton, the in- 
ventor of quaternions, XI, 371, 
James J. Sylvester, XXIX, 213. 
George Boole, IV, 42. 
And then read the following articles: 
Numbers, Theory of, XVII, 629-39. 
Numbers, Partition of, XVII, 629. 
Infinitesimal Calculus, XIII, 6. 
Quaternions, XX, 167. 

The history of geometry is very briefly 
told in X, 334. Concerning great geom- 
etricians, it will be well, of 
course, to refer first to Euclid, 
the greatest of them all. Read his 
biography, VIII, 575. Then notice the 
following: 

Thales, XXIII, 235. 

Theodosius, XXIII, 277. 

Pythagorean contributions to the sci- 
ence of geometry, XX, 146. 

Apollonius of Perga, II, 164. 

Boetius on geometry. III, 743, 

Legendre's work on geometry, XIV, 
413. 

This course can be supplemented by 
a reference to the article on Conic Sec- 
tions, VI, 241. 

For the history of Greek trigonome- 
try, see XX, 92, under the article on 
Ptolemy; a brief notice of In- 
Trigonom- ^-^^^ ^^^ Arabian trigonome- 

etry ° 

try is given in XXIII, 596, and 
an account of modern trigonometry in 
XXIII, 597. Of biographies, read the 
following: 

Hipparchus, Greek mathematician, 
XI, 760. 

John Napier, inventor of logarithms, 
XVII, 183. 

Edmund Gunter, inventor of the terms 
cosine, cotangent, etc., XI, 295. 

Gottfried Leibnitz, XIV, 418. 

Besides the mathematicians already 



•76 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Men of 
Figures 



mentioned, there are several others 
whose biographies are given in the 
Bntannica. . In order to acquire a com- 
plete knowledge of the history of the 
science, you should learn some- 
thing about these men. Here 
is a partial list which, if you 
wish, you will be able to extend as you 
progress with the reading: 

Pappus of Alexandria, XVIII. 233. 

Alhazen (11th century), I, 504. 

Henry Briggs (16th century), IV, 310. 

Thomas Allen (16th century), I, 513. 

Simon Stevinus (17th century), XXII, 
573. 

Alexander Anderson (17th century), 
II, 14. 

Gaspard Monge (18th century), XVI, 
765. 

Thomas Simpson, XXII, 94. 

Robert Simson, XXII, 94. 

Jakob Steiner (19th century), XXII, 559. 

George Peacock, XVIII, 454. 

For a popular course of reading in the 
history of mathematics, perhaps the 
foregoing is sufficient. Besides the four 
branches of the science already men- 
tioned, there are others upon which the 
Britannica contains valuable articles 
intended particularly for spe- 
Mathemat- cialists in mathematics. Sev- 

ical 

Topics eral additional articles on 

mathematical subjects may be 

found under their own headings or by 



reference to the Index. The Guide 
ventures to name here the following, 
not that they should be included in 
any course of reading, but simply to 
remind the student of their presence 
in the Britannica, and to indicate 
where he may find them if occasion 
should require that he should refer to 
them: 

Abacus (arithmetical device), I, 11. 

Calculating machines, IV, 580. 

Squaring the circle, XXII, 450. 

Annuities, II, 64. 

Calculus of Variations, XXIV, 92. 

The Almagest, I, 518. 

Angles, II, 28. 

Conic Sections, VI, 241-54. 

Curve, VI, 632. 

Infinitesimal Calculus, XIII, 6. 

Functions, IX, 717; XIV, 209, 413. 

Geodesy, X, 146. 

Gauging, XVI, 32. 

Logarithms, XIV, 779. 

Measurement, XV, 665. 

Mechanics, XV, 683. 

Numbers, Theory of, XVII, 629. 

Numbers, Partition of, XVII, 629. 

Quaternions, XX, 167. 

Surveying, XXII, 731. 

Variations, XXIV, 92. 

Probability, XIX, 788. 

Projections, XIX, 814. 

Surface, Congruence, Complex, XXII, 
702. 



CHAPTER XVI 

Two Courses of Reading in Physics 



COURSE I. 



Physical science originally had refer- 
ence to a knowledge of whatever exists 
in the material universe, as 
^^sdience distinguished from metaphysi- 
cal science, or a knowledge of 
the laws of mind. In this sense it was 
synonymous with natural science. With 
the progress of scientific study, however, 
each of these two terms has come to 
have a distinctive meaning of its own. 
Natural science now has reference more 
particularly to the study of organized 
bodies and their development. Physi- 
cal science investigates the various phe- 
nomena observed in things without life ; 
in other words, it is a study of the laws 
of matter. 

Until recently the popular name for 
physical science was "natural philoso- 
phy." As now generally regarded, it 
includes two branches, mechanics and 
physics. 

For readings in Mechanics, see the 
article on that subject in the fifteenth 
volume of the Encyclopcedia Britannica. 
See also the chapters in this Guide 
entitled The Mechanic and The Machinist. 

Since any knowledge of physics im- 
plies a study of the laws of matter, let 
us at first take a general survey of some 
of the most important of those laws. 

What is matter ? We do not know. 
But to gain some idea of the extent of 
human knowledge on this sub- 
ject, read the articles Matter, 

XV, 639; Atom, III, 33; and Molecule, 

XVI, 682; VII, 187. 



Hatter 



Some knowledge of the properties 
which matter possesses may be acquired 
by studying the following topics : 

Molecule, XVI, 632; III, 35. 

Inertia, XV, 683. 

Constitution of Bodies, VI, 276. 

Attraction, III, 55; XI, 59; XV, 710. 

Adhesion, I, 140. 

Elasticity, VII, 690. 

Density, XV, 706; XII, 568. 

Compressibility, VII, 707. 

Divisibility, III, 33; XXVI, 425. 

The relative properties of different 
kinds of matter are described in such 
articles as these: 

Diffusion, VII, 186. 

Cohesion, V, 50. 

Gravitation, XI, 59; the law of gravita- 
tion, II, 682; Newton's discovery of this 
law, II, 660. 

Capillary action, V, 50. 

A consideration of the properties of 
matter relative to different forms of 
energy leads to a study of the following 
subjects: 

Conductivity, XI, 515, 523 (thermal), 
and VIII, 49 (electric). 

Specific gravity, XII, 568; Specific 
heat, XI, 514. 

Color, VIII, 720. 

Radiation, XX, 219. 

Electric Waves, XXVI, 536. 

X, or Roentgen Rays, XXVI, 539-41. 

The laws and phenomena of matter 
are treated under many distinct divi- 

(77) 



78 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Pneumatics 



sions; and hence in physics we find 
several related sciences, such as : 

(1) Hydromechanics, or the laws of 
liquids, whether in equilibrium or in 
motion, XII, 451. Here are included : 

Hydrostatics, referring to liquids at 
rest, XIX, 6; XII, 456; Hydrau- 

^chanTcV ^^^^' ^^ ^^® action of liquids in 
motion, XII, 478. 
Closely related to these subjects is 
that branch of mechanics called hydro- 
dynamics, which is discussed in connec- 
tion with them, XII, 451; XIX, 252. 

(2) Pneumatics, or the science which 
treats of the properties of air and of 
gases in general, XIX, 252. 

Many articles on related subjects 
might be read in connection with a 
study of this branch. The fol- 
lowing will be found interest- 
ing and instructive : 

Gases, VI, 276; diffusion of, VII, 187; 
molecular theory of, III, 35; density of, 
XII, 460; laws o"f, V, 405; elasticity of, 
VII, 695. 

Air, I, 379; aerostatics, IX, 268; aero- 
nautics, I, 167; atmosphere, HI, 26. 

(3) Acoustics, or the science which 
treats of the nature, phenomena, and 
laws of sound, I, 93 (see general index); 

see also Music, XVII, 84, and 
many of the references in the 
chapter entitled The Musician, in this 
Guide. 
Voice, XXIV, 293. 
Telephone, XXIII, 137. 
Phonometer, XXVIII, 409; Phonoscope, 
XXVIII, 409. 

(4) Optics, or the science of light, 
XVII, 820. In connection with this sub- 
ject read the following : 

Light, XIV, 581 ; aberration of light, I, 
50; reflection of light, XVI, 69; the ve- 



Acoustics 



locity of light, XX, 635; polar- 
°''"°' ization of light, XXVIII, 452; 
the theory of light, XXIV, 443, 468-71. 

Mirror, XIV, 591; XVI, 523. 

Lenses, XIV, 597. 

Microscope, XVI, 268. 

Telescope, XXIII, 146; Galileo's, II, 
658, X, 28; Lord Rosse's, XX, 878; Her- 
schel's, XI, 684; the Lick and the Yerkes, 
XXIX, 245. 

Spectacles, XXII, 386. 

Spectrometer, XVII, 824. 

Spectroscope, XXII, 387. 

Camera, IV, 654-55; XVIII, 853. 

Eye, VIII, 713. 

Aurora polaris, III, 79-86. 

Rainbow, XI, 356. 

Optical illusions, II, 179. 

Vitascope, XXIX, 455. 

Mirage, XIV, 604. 

(5) Heat, XI, 495. The reading of 
this long and admirable article may be 
supplemented by a study of the follow- 
ing references : 

Temperature (see general index). 

Thermometer, XI, 500. 

Theory of heat, XIX, 6. 

Conduction of heat, XX, 219. 
Convection of heat, XX, 219. 

Heat as the equivalent of force, XV, 
656. 

Power of heat in mechanics, XV, 783. 

Steam, XI, 499; properties of, XXII, 
502. 

(6) Electricity and Magnetism. See 
Chapter XXVI, entitled The Electrician, 
in this Guide. 

course II. 

The late Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, 
in the article on the Physical Sciences 
which he contributed to the Encyclo- 
pcediaBritannica,Yo\. XIX, 5-7, presented 
a classification somewhat different from 



Heat 



TWO COURSES OF READING IN PHYSICS 



79 



Heat 



the above. Physics includes what he 
calls the secondary physical sciences. 
A study of these sciences embraces the 
acquisition of knowledge relative to the 
following topics, and in the order here 
named : 

(1) Theory of gravitation (XI, 59; III, 

56), with discussions on the 
Weight and ^gior}^^ ^nd motion of bodies 

Motion ° 

near the earth. See Motion, 
XV, 761, and particularly XV, 708, 723, 
754. 

(2) Theory of the action of pressure and 
heat in changing the dimensions and 

state of bodies, 
(a) Physical states of a sub- 
stance — gaseous (VI, 276), liquid (VI, 
277; XII, 478), solid (XIX, 252). 

Elasticity, VII, 690; of gases, VII, 695; 
of liquids, VII, 695; of solids, VI, 276. 

Viscosity, VII, 695; of gases, XVI, 641; 
of solids, XXII, 629. 

Plasticity (of solids), XVI, 69. 

Capillarity, I, 140. 

Tenacity (of solids), XVI, 393. 

Cohesion and adhesion, I, 140. 

(b) Effects of heat in raising temper- 
ature (XV, 783), altering size and form 
(XVI, 71; XIX, 6), changing physical 
state (XXIII, 303; XXII, 490). 

(c) Thermometry, XI, 498; XXIII, 
308. 

(d) Calorimetry, XX, 138; XI, 496. 

(e) Thermodynamics, XXIII, 303; 
XXII, 497; XV, 656. 

(f) Dissipation of energy (XXIII, 306) 
by diffusion of matter, etc. 

Diffusion of motion (XXIII, 577; VIII, 



Sound 



Radiance 



188) by internal friction of fluids (XII, 
506; XIX, 247). 

Diffusion of heat (VII, 257) by con- 
duction (XX, 219). 

(g) Theory of propagation 
of sound, I, 94, 
Vibration of strings, etc., XVII, 112; 
I, 108. 

(3) Theory of radiance. 

(a) Geometrical optics, XVII, 820. 
Theory of conjugate foci, XVII, 822. 
Optical instruments, XVII, 825, 830. 

(b) Velocity of light, II, 697; XXIV, 
484. 
(c) Prismatic analysis of light, 

XIV, 596, 617. 

Spectroscopy, XXII, 387. 
Fluorescence, XIV, 583, 607. 

(d) Diffraction of light, XXIV, 452, 
466. 

(e) The wave theory of light, XIV, 
608. 

(f) Polarized light, XIV, 616. 

(g) Theory of primary colors, VIII, 
720. 

The spectrum, XIV, 596, 599. 

(4) Electricity and magnetism. 

(a) Electrostatics, VIII, 14-15, 22-34. 

(b) Electrokinematics, or distribution 
of currents in conductors (see index, 
VIII, 98). 

Electrolysis, VIII, 99. 
Magnetism. Electro-chemistry, VIII. 13, 
112; VI, 744. 

(c) Magnetism, XV, 219. 
Terrestrial magnetism, XVI, 164. 
Diamagnetism, XV, 246, 264; IX, 249. 

(d) Electro-magnetism, VIII, 62. 



— c«»<= 



=0*0— 



CHAPTER XVII 



Readings in the Study of Man 

"The proper studj of mankind is man." — Pope. 



A COMPLETE study of Man in all his 
various relations to the animal and spir- 
Divisions of i^ual worlds would embrace an 
tie Sub- investigation of many branches 
^®°* of knowledge, each occupying 

a distinct field of its own, but each de- 
pendent to a greater or less extent upon 
its kindred sciences. Among these 
branches the following are the most 
important : 

1. Anatomy, which treats of the 
structure of the human body, I, 700. 

2. Physiology, which treats of the 
functions and relations of the different 
parts of the body, XIX, 11. 

3. Psychology, which investigates the 
operations of the human mind (see 
references in chapter entitled The 
Teacher). 

4. Philology, which deals with the 
general principles of language (see chap- 
ter on that subject in this Guide). 

5. Ethics, which treats of man's duty 
to his fellow-men (see references in 
chapter on Philosophy in this Guide). 

6. Sociology, which treats of the ori- 
gin and development of human institu- 
tions, VIII, 544; XVIII, 809; XIX, 360. 

7. Religion, which deals with man's 
relations to the spiritual world, and his 
duties to God (see the chapter entitled 
The Preacher and Theologian). 

8. Anthropology, the natural history 
of man, II, 94. 

9. Ethnography and Ethnology (prop- 
erly subdivisions of Anthropology), 
which deal with the subdivisions of the 
human race, such as hordes, clans, tribes, 
nations, etc., VIII, 539. 

(80) 



Origin of 
Man 



10. Archaeology and Antiquities,which 
treat of the early history of man, and of 
the remains of ancient art, II, 118-19, 
291-321. 

11. History (see Chapter VI in this 
Guide). 

It is proposed to indicate in the pres- 
ent chapter a few courses of reading 
from the Britannica which shall cover 
only the subjects numbered 6, 8, 9, and 

10, above. 

I. ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Let us take as the basis of our studies 
the comprehensive and scholarly article 
by Professor E. B. Tylor in volume 11, 
pages 94-109. As to man's 
place in nature, refer to the 
article Animal Kingdom, II, 44. 
Portions also of the following articles 
may be read: Physiology, XIX, 11; His- 
tology, XII, 6. See also XV, 451, and 
the articles on 

Evolution, VIII, 652. 

Heredity, XXVII, 275. 

Charles Darwin, XXVI, 358. 

Ape, II, 130. 

Man and Monkeys, II, 94. 

Concerning the origin of man, see the 
following: I, 125; X, 257; II, 291, 298; 
also the myths of his creation. III, 123; 
XVII, 164. Read also the section on this 
subject in II, 97. 

The chapter on the races of mankind, 

11, 94-98, may be supplemented by the 
references under Ethnology, below. 

Concerning the antiquity of man, read 
the sections in X, 327, and II, 101; then 
see the references under Archaeology, 
below. 



READINGS IN THE STUDY OF MAN 



81 



Language 



Culture 



JBaces 



Read the section on language, 11, 104- 
06; also the following: 

Evolutionary theories of lan- 
gua.ge, VIII, 673. 

Relation of language to thought, 
XX, 80. 

Relation of language to mythology, 
XVII, 144. 

See Chapter VIII in this volume. 
Study next the development of civili- 
zation and culture. Read section vi, vol- 
ume 11, pages 106-109; and also 
what is said of the earliest 
seats of civilization, II, 299, and of 
Buckle's theory of civilization, IV, 378. 

II. ETHNOLOGY. 

Read by sections the article entitled 
Ethnography, VIII, 539-50. (Observe 
the distinction between Eth- 
nography and Ethnology, p. 
539.) The following are a few of the 
articles or sections which will be found 
interesting in connection with this study. 

The Family, IX, 17. 

Tribes among Primitive Races, IX, 19. 

Races of mankind, II, 98. 

Ages of man, II, 108; also II, 294-300. 

Food, VIII, 541. 

Fire, IX, 198-202. 

Religious Development, see Chapter 
LIV, entitled The Preacher and Theolo- 
gian, in this volume. 

Myths and Legends, VIII, 547-48, 732- 
35; XVII, 143; XXIII, 33; IX, 313. 

Magic, XV, 200. 

Superstitions, VIII, 547. See also the 
references named in Chapter XX of this 
Guide. 

For the characteristics which distin- 
guish man in different countries, see 
Character- Under the head of each coun- 

istics iy.j p^Qj. example, for Man in 
Africa, see the article Africa, I, 233; XXV, 
64, 67, 72-75. So also we shall find, 
6 



Man in Algeria, I, 497; 

Man in America, I, 602; 

Man in Arabia, II, 214; 

Man in Asia, II, 609; 

Man in Austria, III, 103; 
and so on, for every country of import- 
ance in the world. 

Some curious races are also described 
in an entertaining way: 

The Natives of the Andaman Islands, 
II, 12. 

The Hottentots, XII, 323. 

The Bushmen, IV, 512. 

The Bongo, IV, 29. 

The Ainos of Japan, I, 378. 

The Dyaks, IV, 51. 

The Czechs, VI, 665. 

The Copts, VI, 314. 

The Cossacks, VI, 396. 

The Natives of Anam (ugliest in the 
world), VI, 87. 

The Eskimo, VIII, 480. 

The Natives of Polynesia. XIX, 435. 

The Pueblo Indians, XXVIII, 515. 

Half-breeds of Manitoba, XXVII, 214. 

Concerning the origin of justice and 
morals, and their development among 
primitive peoples, see VIII, 
548. Also marriage, XV, 572; 
IX, 18; totemistic marriage ceremonies, 
XXIII, 499; marriage among ancient 
Mexicans, XVI, 221; myths relating to 
marriage, XVII, 165. 

Cannibalism, IV, 712. 

Totemism, XXIII, 4*96. 

Ghost-dance of Indians, XXVII, 91. 

See Frank H. Gushing, XXVI, 340. 

See also the readings in Sociology, 
suggested in this Guide, post, pp. 83, 86. 

III. ARCHEOLOGY AND ANTIQUITIES. 

Under this head we shall include a 
brief survey of a few of the more inter- 
esting antiquities described in various 
articles in the Britannica. No attempt 



Customs 



82 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Antiquities 



will be made at classification. Read 
first the brief article on Antiquities, II, 
118, and then turn to Archaeol- 
ogy, II, 291. This latter article 
may be studied by sections in connec- 
tion with the supplementary article on 
the same subject, XXV, 222. See also 
Egyptology, XXVI, 500; W. M. Flinders 
Petrie, XXVIII, 396. 

Then read, as occasion requires, or as 
inclination may direct, the following 
articles, which have been selected on 
account of their interest to general 
readers: 

Antiquity of Man, II, 101. 

Antiquities of America, I, 608. 

The Mound-Builders, 1, 607-09; III, 344. 

Ancient American Architecture, II, 
394. 

Ancient Ruins in Yucatan, XXIV, 796. 

Antiquities of Egypt, VII, 666-80. 

Antiquities of Peru,I,611 ;XVIII,689-90. 

Wall of Romulus, XX, 830. 

Wall of Servius, XX, 831. 

Wall of Antoninus, II, 122. 

Wall of Hadrian, XI, 326. 

Wall sculptures of Babylon, XVII, 40. 

Wall decorations in Pompeii, XVII, 
42-47. 

Great Wall of China, V, 554-557. 

Baalbec, III, 153. 

The Temple of Bel,in Babylon,III,158 b. 

Nineveh, XVII, 525; II, 348. 

Schliemann's researches in ancient 
Troy, II, 298; XXIX, 19. 

Olympia, recent discoveries at, XVII, 
786. 

Mycense, ancient remains of, XVII, 
121. 

Cylopean masonry, II, 302, 352. 

Remains of masonry in Ithaca, XIII, 
527. 

Tiryns, XXIII, 434. 

General di Cesnola, XXVI, 101, and his 
discoveries in Cyprus, VI, 661, note. 



Temple of Poseidon. XVIII, 137. 

Temple at Bass^, XVIII, 748-49. 

The Palladium, XVIII, 192. 

Painted Tombs of Corneto, VI, 375. 

Mummies, XVII, 26. 

Pompeii, XIX, 459. 

Herculaneum, XI, 646. 

Cave animals and Cave men, V, 231. 

Prehistoric Stone Circles, II, 335. 

Stone Monuments, Dolmens, etc., 
XXI, 56. 

Stonehenge, XXII, 604. 

Avebury, III, 125. 

Carnac, V, 104. 

Ancient Monuments in Peru, II, 395, 

Stone Monuments in Polynesia, XIX, 
442; XX, 285 (Rapanui). 

Animal Mounds of Wisconsin, XXIV, 
652. 

Druidic Monuments, XXI, 57. 

Ancient Barrows, III, 342. 

Old Roman Roads, XX, 597. 

The Catacombs, V, 179-189. 

Ancient Stone Weapons, II, 485. 

Ancient Inscriptions, XIII, 120-40. 

Ancient Bottles, IV, 152. 

Ancient Bracelets, IV, 169. 

Ancient Bricks, IV, 249. 

Ancient Brooches, IV, 332. 

Ancient Lamps, XIV, 247. 

Ancient Mirrors, XVI, 524. 

Ancient Baths, III, 375. 

Ancient Mosaics, XVI, 876. 

Ancient Relics, XX, 368, 

Relics in connection with Christian 
thought and practice, XX, 370. 

Remains of antique art, II, 118. 

Ancient rings; earliest existing rings, 
cylinders, Roman rings, XX, 574; Epis- 
copal rings, poison rings, XX, 575. 

Ancient Plate (Assyrian, Etruscan, 
etc.), XIX, 189-193. 

Ancient Writing Materials, XVIII, 
147, 236. 

Ancient Pottery, III, 164; XIX, 617-38. 



READINGS IN PHILOSOPHY 



83 



Ancient Textiles, Weaving in Prehis- 
toric Times, etc., XXIII, 223. 
Antiquarian Societies, II, 119. 
Archgeological Societies, XXII, 232. 
Asiatic Societies, XXV, 271. 

IV. SOCIOLOGY. 

The following are a few of the articles 
or sections which will be found inter- 
esting or instructive in connection with 
this study: 



Ethnography, section VI, on Social 
Development, VIII, 544-46. 

Government, XI, 9-20. 

Philosophy, XVIII, 809 b. 

Political Economy, XIX, 359-415. 

Comte's conceptions in sociology, VI^ 
210-212. 

Statistics, XXII, 478-84. 

Socialism, XXII, 216-32. 

Sociological Societies, XXII, 238. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
Readings in Philosophy 



Definition 



Philosophy is a term the meaning 
and scope of which have varied greatly 
according to the usage of dif- 
ferent authors and different 
ages. The aim of the courses of read- 
ing which we shall here attempt to in- 
dicate is to afford a general view of the 
history of philosophic ideas from the 
earliest times to the present, with a 
brief notice of some of the famous 
schools of philosophy, and of their in- 
fluence upon modern thought. Of the 
large number of articles in the Britan- 
nica which may be utilized for this pur- 
pose, only those will be named which 
are the most essential to a general 
knowledge of the subject, or w^hich are 
deemed to be of the greatest interest to 
the young student or the casual reader. 

I. ETHICS. 

The special article on Philosophy, 
XVIII, 805, may be made the starting- 
point and basis for these stud- 
ies. This article, leaving con- 
troversial details as far as possible in 
the background, attempts to explain 
generally the essential nature of philoso- 



Etliics 



phy, and to indicate the main divisions 
into which, as a matter of historical 
fact, its treatment has fallen. After 
reading the first and second divisions of 
this article, pp. 805-807, let us make a 
brief study of the lives of some of the 
famous ancient philosophers, and of the 
different schools which they founded. 

But first, turn to the article on ethics, 
VIII, 506, and read the introductory 
paragraphs defining and giving a gen- 
eral account of this division of the sub- 
ject. Read next the article on Thales, 
the earliest philosopher of Greece, and 
the founder of Greek astronomy and 
geometry, XXIII, 235. Then read the 
following articles in their order: 

Pythagoras (580-500 b. c.) and Pytha- 
goreanism, XX, 143. 

Heraclitus of Ephesus (535-475 b. c), 
XI, 607. 

Democritus (470?-362? b.c), VII, 53. 

The Sophists, XXII, 277; The Age of 

the Sophists, VIII, 508. 

Ancient Socratcs (470-399 b. c), XXII, 

PMioso- 244 ; Socratic Schools, VIII, 509. 

P^"' Aristippus, II, 445. The Cy- 

renaic School, VI, 662. 



84 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



The Cynics, VI, 657; VIII, 510; Antis- 
thenes, II, 120; Diogenes, VII, 214. 

Plato, XIX, 205; VIII, 510; Platonism, 
I, 67; Plato and Aristotle, VIII, 512; 
Plato's school, VIII, 517; the Academy, 
I, 67. 

Aristotle, II, 448; Aristotle's Ethics, 
VIII, 512; his logic, XIV, 791; his meta- 
physics, XVI, 85; the Peripatetics, XVIII, 
556. 

Epicurus, VIII, 419, 516. 

Stoicism, VIII, 514; XXII, 589. 

Seneca, XXI, 690-92. 

Epictetus, VIII, 418-19. 

Marcus Aurelius, III, 75. 

Neoplatonism, XVII, 341; VIII, 517. 

Mysticism, XVII, 136. 

Christian ethics, VIII, 518; faith, VIII, 
519; love and purity, VIII, 519. 

Alexandrian school, I, 439. 

St. Augustine, Christian philosopher, 
III, 66. 

St. Ambrose, I, 582. 

Scholastic philosophy, XXI, 435. 

Thomas Aquinas, II, 201. 

Albertus Magnus, I, 401. 

Abelard, I, 38. 

Bernard of Clairvaux, III, 619. 

Grotius, XI, 193. 
Modern Hobbes and his " Leviathan," 

PMloso- XII, 33. 
'"'''' Descartes, VII, 100-111. 

The Cambridge Moralists, VIII, 526. 

Henry More, XVI, 841. 

John Locke. XIV, 758. 

Spinoza, XXII, 415-19. 

Shaftesbury, XXI, 767. 

Bernard de Mandeville, XV, 479. 

David Hume, XII, 360. 

Adam Smith, XXII, 179. 

The Intuitional School, VIII, 531. 

Dugald Stewart, XXII, 574. 

Utilitarianism, VIII, 533; XXIX, 411. 

William Paley, XVIII, 185. 

Jeremy Bentham, III, 496. 



Definition 



Immanuel Kant, XIII, 853. 

Johann Gottlieb Fichte, IX, 117-21. 

Georg Friedrich Hegel, XI, 546. 

John Stuart Mill, XVI, 320; XXIX, 412. 

Auguste Comte, VI, 204. 

Arthur Schopenhauer, XXI, 469-79. 

Pessimism, XVIII, 698-704. 

Herbert Spencer, XXIX, 136. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson, I, 639; XXVI, 
568. 

Transcendentalism, XXIX, 309. 

Finally, this study of ethics may be 
brought to a close by reading the con- 
cluding paragraph on that subject in 
XVIII, 809 a.'" 

II. METAPHYSIC. 

Metaphysic is " the science which 
deals with the principles which are 
presupposed in all being and 
kno^ying, though they are 
brought to light only by philosophy." 
According to Aristotle it includes also 
theology, the science of God. It is 
treated at considerable length by Pro- 
fessor Caird, of Glasgow, in XVI, 85-108. 

See the references given above for 
Aristotle, the Sophists the Socratic 
school, Neoplatonism, Kant, 
Locke, etc. Read also the 
following articles: 

Neoplatonism, VIII, 517; XVII, 341-48. 

Manichajism, XV, 489-95. 

Scholasticism, XXI, 435-49. 

Bacon, III, 173; XXIII, 263. 

Descartes, VII, 100. 

Spinoza, XXII, 415. 

Fichte, IX, 117; XX, 302. 

Animism, II, 49. 

Realism, XXI, 436; XXVIII, 557; see 
also Hamilton, XI, 372; Schopenhauer, 
XXI, 478; Pessimism, XVIII, 698-704; 
and Universals, XXI, 436 et seq. 

Idealism, XXVII, 356. 

Altruism, XXV, 151. 



References 



READINGS IN PHILOSOPHY 



85 



Modern 
Psychology 



Analytic Judgments, I, 699. 
Association of Ideas, II, 638, 
Antinomy, II, 114. 

III. PSYCHOLOGY. 

Psychology, " the science of the phe- 
nomena of the mind," is the subject of 
a long and very learned article 
by Professor Ward, of Cam- 
bridge University, XX, 42-90. 
It may be read by sections with collat- 
eral references to the articles treating 
of the lives and works of the men who 
have done most for the development of 
this science. 

See the references given above for 
Locke, Hume, Mill, and many others. 

Read also the following articles: 

Berkeley, III, 508. 

Herbart, XI, 642. 

Leibnitz, XIV, 418. 

Sir William Hamilton, XL 371. 

Herbert Spencer, II, 641. 

Bain, I, 201; III, 461. 

Association of ideas, II, 688. 

Analytic judgments, I, 699. 

Belief, III, 459. 

Imagination, XX, 62. 

Feeling, XX, 45, 71, 79. 

Abstraction, I, 59. 

Absolute, I, 58. 

Analysis and Synthesis, I, 695. 

Attention, III, 46, etc. 

Psychology, XXVIII, 513. 

James Sully, XXIX, 192. 

Telepathy, XXIX, 242. 

Magnetism, Animal, XV, 279-85. 

Psychology in relation to ethics, VIII, 
506; in relation to logic, XIV, 787; to 
metaphysics, XVIII, 862; to evolution, 
VIII, 670; to religion, XXIII, 293. 

Aristotle's Psychology, II, 459. 

Plato's, XIX, 213. 

The Stoics', XXII, 593. 

Xenocrates's, XXIV, 755. 



Logic 



Descartes', VII, 109. 

Hume's, XII, 365. 

Leibnitz's, XIV, 422. 

Kant's, XIII, 857. 

Hegel's, XI, 551. 

Cousin's, VI, 466. 

Lewes's, XIV, 490. 

See additional references to this sub- 
ject in Chapter LVIII, entitled The 
Teacher, in this Guide. 

IV. LOGIC. 

Logic is the systematic study of 
thought. The subject is discussed in a 
comprehensive and scholarly 
article by Professor Adamson, 
of Manchester, in Volume XIV of the 
Britannica, pages 787-812. Aristotle's 
contributions to the development of 
this science are briefly noticed in II, 
453-55. 

Hutcheson's in XII, 426. 

Condillac's in VI, 223. 

Gilbert de la Porree's in X, 529. 

Leibnitz's in XIV, 422. 

Hegel's in XI, 551. 

Kant's in XIII, 862. 

Lully's in XV, 65. 

Hamilton's in XI, 374. 

John Stuart Mill's in XVI, 324. 

Whately's in XXIV, 559. 

Boole's in IV, 42-43. 

De Morgan's in VII, 57-59. 

The various terms and distinctive ex- 
pressions used in the science are defined 
and discussed, sometimes sep- 
arately, each under its own 
head, and sometimes in a comprehensive 
treatise upon some general topic. For 
example: 

A priori and a posteriori, II, 187. 

Keductio ad absurdum, I, 59. 

Accident, I, 79. 

Analogy, I, 694. 

Reality, XIV, 805-806. ■ 



Terms 



86 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Analysis, I, 695, 698, 

Reason, XIV, 787. 

Association of Ideas, II, 638-42. 

See the references given above for 
Aristotle, Kant, Mill, Hegel, etc. 

Read also the following articles or 
paragraphs: 

Lotze, XV, 13. 

Ueberweg, XXIII, 763. 

Condillac, VI, 221. 

Ulrici, XXIII, 768. 

Analytics, XIV, 792. 

Dialectics, XIV, 793; II, 453. 

Deduction, I, 699. 

Induction, I, 699; XIV, 792. 

Syllogism, XIV, 796. 

V. ESTHETICS. 

By Esthetics is generally meant the 
science of the beautif q1, with its allied 
conceptions and emotions. A 
^ ufui^*^' brief survey of the subject and 
of the various problems which 
its study involves is given in a special 
article by Professor James Sully in I, 
191-201. After reading the first two 
sections of this article, see the refer- 
ences given above for Socrates, Plato, 
Aristotle, and the other philosophers 
mentioned under the head of Ethics. 
Read next the chapter on the history of 
aesthetic systems, pp. 193-201. 

This course of reading may be contin- 
ued with a study of the short section 
on aesthetics, XVIIl, 809. 

Edmund Burke's work on the sublime 
and beautiful is briefly noticed in IV, 
482. Jouffroy's theory, that the beauti- 
ful when considered apart from utility 
may be useless, is referred to in XIII, 
764 a.' See also: 



The nature of beauty, IX, 169. 
Hutcheson on beauty, XII, 426. 
Plato on beauty, XIX, 212. 

VI. SOCIOLOGY. 

Philosophers will agree in telling us 
that for the content of morality we must 
refer, in great part, to the expe- 
s™c^iety rienco crystallized in laws and 
institutions, and to the un- 
written law of custom, honor, and good 
breeding, which has become organic in 
the society of which we are members. 
Sociology, or the science of the develop- 
ment of human society, is brought there- 
fore within the scope of philosophy. In 
some of its aspects it may indeed be 
regarded as a branch or subdivision of 
ethics. Many articles in the Britannica 
relate more or less directly to this in- 
teresting subject. The following may 
be studied with profit: 

Antiquity of Man, II, 101. 

Development of Civilization, II, 106. 

Development of Culture, II, 107. 

Family Development, VIII, 543. 

Social Development, VIII, 544. 

Association and Evolution, VIII, 534. 

Relations of sociology to economics, 
XIX, 360. 

Sociological conceptions of Comte, 
VI, 210. 

Herbert Spencer's Social Statics^ 
XXIX, 137. 

Sociology in relation to Statistics, 
XXII, 481. 

See also Sociological Societies, XXII, 
238. 

In connection with these readings, 
make use of the references to ethnology 
given in this Guide, p. 81. 



CHAPTER XIX 



Readings for Bible Students 

" This course of reading Scripture and good books will be 
manj ways to your great advantage." — Richard Baxter, 1660. 



Sunday-school teachers, ministers of 
the Gospel, theologians, and all students 

of the Bible will find the En- 
^History cyclopcedia Britcmnica replete 

with information concerning 
all subjects connected with Bible his- 
tory, biography, or geography. There 
is scarcely a proper name in the Old 
Testament or the New that is not the 
subject of a special article. The history 
of the Bible itself, with that of the crit- 
ical problems connected with the books 
which compose it, is ably and fully dis- 
cussed by Professor W. Robertson Smith 
in a thirteen-page article, III, 548-61. 
Many of the books composing the Bible 
are treated separately in a similar com- 
prehensive manner. See the following: 
Pentateuch and Joshua, XVIII, 515- 
24. This article embraces a complete 

survey of the first six books of 
^Ti^l^if^li- the Bible, with a careful dis- 

tne Bible ' 

cussion of the Mosaic law, and 
a notice of the most recent criticisms 
and opinions. In connection with this 
article it will be interesting to read 
what is said of Philo's " Exposition of 
the Mosaic Law," XVIII, 776 b." 
The Book of Judges, XIII, 773, and 

XIII, 410. 

The Book of Ruth, XXI, 119. 
The Books of Samuel, XXI, 265. 
The First and Second Books of Kings, 

XIV, 85. 
Chronicles, V, 613. 

The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, 
VIIL 728. 



The Book of Esther, VIII, 494. 

The Book of Job, XIII, 430, 708. 

The Book of Psalms, XX, 33, and XII, 
623. 

The Book of Proverbs, XIX, 904. 

The Book of Ecclesiastes, VII, 539. 

Song of Solomon, V, 29. 

Prophet, Prophets, XIX, 836. 

Lamentations of Jeremiah, XIV, 241. 

The Book of Daniel, VI, 707. 

The Old Testament Canon, V, 3. 

The Gospels, X, 702. 

Acts of the Apostles, I, 114. 

Epistles of St. Paul, III, 555. 

Epistle to the Hebrews, XI, 538. 

Epistle to the Romans, XX, 746. 

Epistles to the Corinthians, VI, 354. 

Epistle to the Galatians, X, 18. 

Epistle to the Ephesians, VIII, 407. 

Epistle to the Colossians, VI, 147. 

Epistles to the Thessalonians, XXIII, 
318. 

Epistles to Timothy and Titus, XVIII, 
353. 

Epistle to Philemon, XVIII, 755. 

Epistle of St. James, XIII, 563. 

Epistles of St. Peter, XVIII, 710. 

Epistles of St. John, XIII, 718. 

Epistle of St. Jude, XIII, 771. 

The Book of Revelation, XX, 510. 

The New Testament Canon, V, 7. 

Apocalyptic Literature, II, 153. 

The Apocrypha of the Old Testa- 
ment, II, 158; the Book of Baruch, III, 
349; Esdras, VIII, 478; Judith, XIII, 
775; Maccabees, XV, 132; Tobit, XXIII, 

456. 

(87) 



88 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Versions 



Apocryphal Books of the New Testa- 
ment, II, 161. 
Israel, XIII, 406. 
Moses, XVI, 888. 

Miscenane- D^vid, VI, 736. 
ous Bible JeWS, XIII, 690. 

Topics g-^jg Concordance, VI, 214. 

Bible Glosses, X, 612. 

Versions of the Bible: 

English, VIII, 341; WyclifEe's, XXIV, 
744; Tyndale's, XXIII, 717; Coverdale's, 
VI, 471; the Bishops', VIII, 
347; the Authorized Version, 
VIII, 347-48; Luther's, XV, 73; Geneva, 
VIII, 347; the Septuagint, XXI, 699; the 
Vulgate, III, 560; XIII, 642 a; the Ro- 
man Catholic version, VIII, 348 b"; V, 
323 b. 

Inspiration of the Bible, XIII, 161. 

Circulation of the Bible, III, 548; 
XXV, 449-63. 

The above-named articles, many of 
them long and all the work of Biblical 
scholars of high repute, if read in the 
order named, will constitute a complete 
course of study in Bible history and 
criticism. Theologians and advanced 
students will recognize at once their 
great interest and value. 

The Britannica also contains innum- 
erable briefer articles on subjects con- 
cerning which every Bible 
reader desires to be informed. 
The following is a partial list 
of such articles arranged alphabetically, 
according to the volumes in which they 
occur: 

Volume I. Aaron, the first high priest, 
p. 11; Abel, the first man slain, p. 37; 
Abimelech, the title of certain kings in 
Palestine, p. 51 ; Abraham, the " father 
of the faithful," p. 54; Absalom, the re- 
bellious son of David, p. 57; Adam, the 
first man, p. 124; Ahab, the wicked king 
of Israel, p. 373; Ahasuerus, king of 



Shorter 
Articles 



Persia, p. 374; Amos, one of the proph- 
ets, p. 655. 

Amalekites, p. 572; Ammonites, p. 
651; and Amorites, p. 655 — tribes at 
war with the Israelites. 

Abana and Pharpar, p. 12; Adullam, 
p. 152; and Ai, p. 376 — rivers or cities 
mentioned in the Old Testament. 

Volume II. Athaliah, p. 724; Asa (Vol. 
XXV, p. 265); Apocrypha, p. 158; Ark of 
the Covenant, p. 473; Ararat, p. 271. 

Volume III. Balaam, p. 223; Baruch, 
p. 348; Belshazzar, p. 477. 

Volume IV. Cain, p. 570; Canaanites, 
p. 674; Cana of Galilee, p. 673. 

Volum,e V. Canticles, p. 29; Chroni- 
cles, p. 613. 

Volume VI. Daniel, p. 707; David, p. 
736. 

Volume VII. Deluge, p. 48; Deca- 
logue, p. 15. 

Volume VIIL Eli, p. 125; Elijah, p. 
126; Elisha, p. 131; Emmaus, p. 163; 
Enoch, p. 400; Esau, p. 472; Esdras, p. 
478; Esther, p. 494; Eve, p. 642; Ezekiel, 
p. 725. 

Volume X. Galilee, p. 25; Gath, p. 98; 
Gilead, p. 531; Goshen, p. 701; Gideon, 
p. 525; Gog, p. 656; Bible Glosses, p. 
612; the Gospels, p. 702. 

Volume XII. Hittites, p. 27; Hosea, 
p. 309. 

Volume XIII. Isaiah, p. 388; Israel, 
p. 406; Jeremiah, p. 637; Jesus Christ, 
p. 667; Jesus, son of Sirach, p. 683; 
Job, p. 708. 

Volume XIV. Lamech, p. 238. 

Volume XV. Manna, p. 500; Mark, p. 
559; Mary, p. 596; Matthew, p. 640. 

Volume XVI Messiah, p. 58; Micah, 
p. 232; Michael, p. 234; Midian, p. 296; 
Moab, p. 557; Moloch, p. 722; Moses, p. 
888. 

Volume XVU. Nahum, p. 171; Naph- 
tali, p. 181; Nathanael, p. 249; Nehe- 



READINGS FOR BIBLE STUDENTS 



miah, p. 329; Nimrod, p. 524; Nebu- 
chadnezzar, p. 319. 

Volume XVIII. Paul, p. 425; Peter, 
707; Pharaoh, p. 744; Philemon, p. 755; 
Philip, p. 756; Philistines, p. 769. 

Volume XX. The land of Rameses, 
p. 277. 

Volume XXL Sabbath, p. 132; Sa- 
maria, p. 255; Samaritans, p. 256; Sam- 
uel, p. 264; Samson, p. 264. 

Volume XXII. Simeon, p. 84; Simon 
Magus, p. 86; Sinai, p. 95; Solomon, p. 
265; Synagogue, p. 850; Susa, p. 760, 

Volume XXIII Thomas, p. 328; Tim- 
othy, p. 425; Titus, p. 448; Tobit, p. 456. 

Of the articles which relate to the 
geography of the Bible, the following 
are a few of the most important: 

Sinai, celebrated as the place where 
Moses received the Law, XXII, 95. 

Palestine,the " Promised Land," XVIII, 
174, and XIII, 410. 

Jerusalem, the holy city, XIII, 646. 

Dead Sea, together with an account of 
the two cities, Sodom and Gomorrah, 
which are said to have occu- 
To«.ap..Pieditssite,VII,3. 

Hebron, the ancient capital 
of Judea, XI, 542. 

Bethlehem, the city of David, III, 533. 

Bethany, the " town of Mary and 
Martha," III, 533. 

Beersheba, the most southern town of 
Palestine, III, 435. 

Samaria, XXI, 255. 

Shechem, XXI, 819. 

Nazareth, the town where Jesus lived, 
XVII, 312. 

Gennesaret, otherwise called the Sea 
of Galilee, X, 27. 

Gethsemane, XXVII, 89. 

Capernaum, V, 49. 

Joppa, XIII, 756. 

Antioch, II, 115. 



Damascus, the oldest existing city in 
the world, VI, 696. 

The journeyings of the Israelites from 
Egypt to the Promised Land may be 
Journey traced by reading the follow- 
From ing references in their order : 
Egypt Starting from Rameses in 
Egypt, XX, 277, they fled to the Red 
Sea, XIII, 406. Here Pharaoh and his 
host were overthrown and drowned, but 
the Israelites, having crossed in safety, 
pursued their journey through the wil- 
derness. For three days they had no 
water to drink, and arriving at last at 
Marah, XIV, 774, they found that the 
water in the springs there was bitter. 
This water was miraculously made 
sweet, and they continued their jour- 
ney, finally reaching Sinai, XXII, 95, 
where the law was delivered to Moses. 
From Sinai they passed by various 
stations to Kadesh-Barnea, XXII, 860, 
and from that place sent out twelve 
spies to view the Promised Land. Be- 
ing afraid to enter the Promised Land, 
they then turned back into the wilder- 
ness, where they wandered for forty 
years. At Mount Hor, XII, 163, Aaron 
died. While passing around Edom, XII, 
737, they were attacked by fiery serpents. 
Arriving at last on the plains of Moab, 
XVI, 557, the Israelite army was re- 
viewed and the law was confirmed by 
Moses. Moses viewed the Promised Land 
from the top of Mount Pisgah and died 
there. After this the people, under 
Joshua, crossed the Jordan, XIII, 756, 
encamped a short time at Gilgal, X, 532, 
and then marched against Jericho, XIII, 
640, and Ai, I, 376. At Shechem, XXI, 
819, they again encamped, and there the 
cursings were read from Mount Ebal, 
X, 399, and the blessings from Mount 
Gerizim, XXI, 256, Returning to Gilgal, 



90 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



a treaty was made with the people of 
Gibeon, X, 520. At Merom, XIII, 757, 
the northern Canaanites were signally 
defeated; and at Shiloh, XXI, 840, the 
twelve tribes were assigned to their re- 
spective possessions. 

In much the same way we may follow 
the Apostle Paul in his voyage to Rome. 

He sets sail from Cassarea, IV, 

Faurs 568; touches at Sidon, XXIL 

to Eome 41 ; theuce proceeds to Cyprus, 

VI, 659, and to Myra, XV, 95, 
where he is transhipped to a corn vessel, 
which coasts along the shore of Asia 
Minor to Cnidus, VI, 43. Being caught 
by the wind, the vessel is driven to Crete^ 
VI, 503, and follows the southern coast 
of that island to Fair Haven, VI, 504- 
Sailing thence to find a secure harbor 
for the winter, the vessel encounters the 
wind Eurokylon, XV, 342, and XXVI, 593; 
and, under shelter of the island Clauda, 
VI, 504, the sailors prepare for the storm 
by striking sail and turning the vessel's 
head to the wind. For fourteen days 
they are driven helpless across the sea. 



and are finally thrown upou the shore 
of Melita, XV, 849, escaping only with 
their lives. After three months, Paul 
sets sail in an Alexandrian corn ship, 
stops at Syracuse, XXII, 852, for three 
days; then, making circuit, passes Rhe- 
gium, XX, 353, and the next day lands 
at Puteoli, XVII, 195, where he rests a 
full week. Then he proceeds by the 
Appian Way, II, 184, to the city of Rome, 
XX, 824. 

It is safe to say, in conclusion, that 
the earnest student of the Bible will 
find in the Britannica an answer to al- 
most every question that may be asked 
concerning biblical subjects. From no 
other single work will he be able to ob- 
tain a larger amount of useful informa- 
tion at so little expenditure of time and 
labor. The Britannica is, in short, the 
great authority to which readers and 
students of every denomination or creed 
may turn with full confidence in its 
correctness and impartiality. See Chap- 
ter LIV, entitled The Preacher and The- 
ologian, in this Guide. 



CHAPTER XX 
Readings in Mythology, Legends, Traditions, and Folklore 

"Books are our household gods." — January Searle. 
"Gods and goddesses, all the whole synod of them!" — Antony and Cleopatra, 



Definition 



I. MYTHOLOGY. 

Mythology is the science which ex- 
amines the myths of cosmogony and of 
gods and heroes. A very schol- 
arly exposition of this science 
IS given by Andrew Lang in Volume 
XVII, pp. 143-65, of the Britannica. 
Students, however, who are not already 
somewhat familiar with the subject will 



prefer to read some of the shorter arti- 
cles first; they will afterward be able 
to take up this entertaining and com- 
prehensive disquisition, and read it with 
appreciation and delight. The follow- 
ing list includes a number of interesting 
and valuable articles, arranged for the 
most part in alphabetical order: 
Myths of the creation, VI, 394, and 



READINGS IN MYTHOLOGY, LEGENDS, TRADITIONS, AND FOLKLORE 91 



XVII, 163. Read also the chapter on 
cosmogonies, I, 407; and the article on 
Mysteries, XVII, 131-36. 

Myths of the gods: 

Apollo, 11, 162. 
""^kZT Athena (Minerva), II, 727; 
XVI, 456. 

Diana (Artemis), II, 562; VII, 144. 

Hebe, XI, 530. 

Hephaestus (Vulcan), XI, 605. 

Juno (Hera), XI, 605; XIII, 788. 

Jupiter (Zeus), XIII, 789; XXIV, 820. 

Mars (Ares), XV, 576; II, 426. 

Marsyas, XV, 582. 

Mercury (Hermes), XI,. 670; XVI, 36. 

Nemesis, XVII, 341. 

Neptune (Poseidon), XVII, 355; XIX, 
574. 

Saturn (Cronus), XXI, 335. 

Uranus, XXIV, 12 a'"; XVII, 161. 

Venus (Aphrodite), II, 151., 

Vesta, XXIV, 209. 

The .Esir, I, 189. 

Odin, II, 594; XVII, 162. 

Frey, I, 190. 

Baldur, III, 238. 
Niord,I, 190. 
Bragi, I, 190. 
Thor, XVII, 162. 
Freya, IX, 682. 
Loki, XVII, 487. 
Heimdal, I, 190, etc. 
Asgard, II, 593. 

Bel, III, 152. 
Ashtoreth, II, 643. 

Astarte, II, 643. 

Merodach, XXIII, 256. 

Ammon, I, 649. 
Anubis, II, 128. 
Bubastis, IV, 366. 
Baal, III, 152. 
Moloch, XVI, 722. 
Ahriman, I, 376. 



Northern 



Other 
Gods 



Dagon, VI, 671. 

Anoukis, II, 80. 

Athor, III, 13. 

Buto, IV, 525. 

Ra, VII, 620. 

Osiris, VII, 620. 

Isis, VII, 621 b.' 

Serapis, XXI, 706. 

For further references, see Chapter 
LIV, entitled The Preacher and Theolo- 
gian, in this Guide. 

II. legends. 

1. Closely allied to the myths of the 
gods — in fact, inseparable from them — 

are the legends of the ancient 
°^stories^ heroes. All are related in the 

Britannica, with now and then 
a pertinent inquiry respecting their 
origin, or a brief discussion concerning 
their interpretation. Here you may find 
the story of Achilles, whose " vengeful 
wrath brought woes numberless upon 
the Greeks," I, 89; of Acis and his love 
for the nymph Galatea, I, 92; of Actseon, 
hunted by his own hounds, I, 119; of 
Adonis, beloved by Venus, I, 148; of 
Adrastus and the war of the Seven 
against Thebes, I, 150; of ^acus, famed 
for his integrity and piety, I, 162; of 
i^geus, the king of Athens, and of 
^gina, the river-nymph, 1, 163; of iEgis, 
the buckler of Jupiter, I, 164; of ^gis- 
thus, the traitor, 1, 164, and his betrayal 
of Agamemnon, " king of men," I, 244; of 
iEneas and his flight from Troy, I, 165; 
of Ajax Telamon and Ajax Olleus and 
their bold exploits, 1, 383; of fair Alcestis 
giving herself up to death to save the 
life of her husband, I, 406; of Alcinous 
and his Phaeacian people, I, 415; of 
Alpheus, the river-god, I, 540, and his 
adventure with the nymph Arethusa, II, 
428; of the Amazonian women, I, 575, 
brave warriors of the Colchian shore; 



92 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



of Amphiaraus. I, 657. whose prophetic 
power did not save him from an early 
death; of Amphion, I, 679, the sound of 
whose lyre caused stones to move and 
form themselves into the walls of Thebes ; 
of Amymone and the satyr, I, 686. 

This takes us only through the first 
volume. Of the numerous classical 
otjiej. legends narrated in the re- 

ciassicai maining volumes, it is unnec- 
Legends gggg^j-y ^q jjame all. Any course 
of reading on this subject, however, 
ought to include the following: 

Anchises, the father of ^Eneas, II, 4. 

Andromache, the wife of Trojan Hec- 
tor, II, 21. 

Andromeda, saved by Perseus from 
the jaws of a sea-monster, II, 21. 

Antaeus, giant and wrestler, overcome 
by Hercules, II, 89. 

Antigone, the heroine of one of the 
most famous of the old Greek tragedies, 
II, 112. 

The Argonauts and their famous voy- 
age in search of the Golden Fleece, II, 
436. 

Ariadne, the fair maiden of Crete, II, 
441. 

Arion, the Greek bard and player on 
the cithara, II, 442. 

Atalanta, the swift-footed huntress of 
Arcadia, II, 723. 

Atreus, the father of Agamemnon, III, 
44. 

Atropos, one of the Fates, IX, 44. 

Atys, the beautiful shepherd of 
Phrygia, III, 58. 

The autochthones, or aborigines of 
Greece, III, 123. 

Cadmus, the reputed inventor of let- 
ters, IV, 559. 

Calchas, the wisest of soothsayers, IV, 
580. 

Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry, IV, 
628. 



The centaurs, or " bull-killers," fabled 
as creatures half man and half horse, V, 
295. 

Cerberus, the three-headed dog that 
guards the gates of Hades, V, 299. 

Cupid and Psyche, VI, 625. 

The Cyclopes, a lawless race of one- 
eyed monsters, VI, 657. 

Daedalus, the most famous artisan of 
prehistoric times, VI, 670. 

Danae, the mother of Perseus, VI, 702. 

Danaiis and his fifty daughters, VI, 
702. 

Daphne, beloved by Apollo, VI, 723. 

Deucalion, the Noah of the Greeks, 

VII, 116. 

Dodona and its famous oaks, VII, 280. 
Echo and her love for Narcissus, VII, 
555. 
Elysium, or the abode of the blessed, 

VIII, 144. 

Endymion, and his perpetual sleep, 
VIII, 187. 

The Epigoni, sons of the seven heroes 
who perised at Thebes, VIII, 423. 

The Erinyes, or Furies, VIII, 464. 

The Fates, IX, 44. 

The Fauns, IX, 47. 

The Furies, VIII, 464; IX, 738. 

Ganymede, the cup-bearer of Zeus, X, 
65. 

The Giants, X, 510. 

Glaucus, the fisherman who became a 
god. X, 603. 

The Gorgons, X, 697. 

The Graces, XI, 24. 

The Harpies, XI, 438. 

Hercules, the greatest of the heroes, 
XI, 649. 

Hero and Leander, XI, 674. 

The Hesperides, daughters of the 
West, XI, 695. 

Iphigeneia, XIII, 217. 

Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, 
XIII, 606. 



READINGS IN MYTHOLOGY, LEGENDS, TRADITIONS, AND FOLKLORE 93 



Hyacinth QS, the friend of Apollo, XII, 
436. 

Laocoon, the unfortunate Trojan, 
crushed by serpents, XIV, 292. 

The Lapithge, ancient race of Thessaly, 
XIV, 301. 

Linus, who taught Hercules music, 
XIV, 684. 

Medea, the enchantress, XV, 787. 

Medusa, the Gorgon, X, 697. 

Midas and the " golden touch," XVI, 
290. 

Milo, the wrestler, XVI, 335. 

Minos, the Minotaur,andthe Labyrinth 
of Crete, XVI, 500. 

The Nymphs, XVII, 707. 

Nestor, oldest of Grecian heroes be- 
fore Troy, XVII, 363. 

Orpheus, the sweetest of all Musicians, 
XVIII, 54. 

Odysseus, or Ulysses, XVII, 749. 

Pegasus, the winged horse of the 
Muses, XVIII, 479. 

Pelias, king of lolcos by the sea, 
XVIII, 485. 

Penelope, the faithful wife of Odys- 
seus, XVIII, 501. 

Phaethon, son of Helios, XVIII, 740. 

Romulus, the mythical founder of 
Rome, XX, 862. 

Theseus, the great Athenian hero, 
XXIII, 314. 

The- Trojan war, XXIII, 619-20. See 
also Homer, XII, 111. 
' 2. Of old English legends intimately 
associated with much that is best in our 
literature, there are several 
with which every student 
should be familiar. Among 
these are the following: 

Beowulf, VIII, 360 b", 361 a" '; XX, 
674. 

King Arthur and his Knights of the 
Round Table, II, 568; XX, 657-66. 

Lancelot of the Lake, XX, 660. 



Euglisb 
Legends 



Merlin, the wizard, XX, 661. 
Guy of Warwick, XI, 304. 
Sir Bevis of Hampton, XX, 669. 
Godiva, the fair lady of Coventry, VI, 
470. 
Fair Rosamond, XX, 870. 
Whittington and his Cat, XXIV, 587. 

3. Of Christian legends, some of the 
most interesting are : 

Lilith, the legendary wife 
"Sfeni of Adam, I, 127 b; VH, 55 b, 
57 a." 

Saint Cecilia, V, 247. 

Saint Christopher, V, 612. 

Saint Denis, VU, 70. 

Saint George and the Dragon, X, 386. 

The Holy Grail, XI, 31. 

The Wandering Jew, XIII, 684-85. 

The Flying Dutchman, XIII, 685 a"; 
XXIV, 334 b (Der Fliegende Hollander). 

Saint Nicholas, XVII, 496. 

Saint Veronica, XXIV, 189. 

Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, XXI, 730. 

Prester John, XIX, 734-37. 

4. Of other famous legends the num- 
ber is too great for anything like a com- 
plete list to be given. Among 

Misceua- ^/hoso referred to or narrated 

neous 

in the Britannica the follow- 
ing may be mentioned: 

Adam's Peak in Ceylon, I, 129. 

The Tower of Babel, III, 155. 

The Story of Lohengrin, XXIV, 336. 

The Story of Tannhauser, XXIII, 51. 

Find, or Fingal, the Celtic hero. IX, 
187. 

Roland, the French hero, XX, 641. 

The Cid, famous in Spanish story, V, 
675. 

Amadis of Gaul, I, 571; XX, 670-73. 

Palmerin de Oliva, XX, 673 a-74. 

Havelok, the Dane, XX, 674; VIII, 
366 b. 



94 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Ogier, the Dane, XX, 668. 

Prester John, King of Abyssinia, I, 
64; XIX, 734. 

The Legend of Dr. Faustus, IX, 49. 

Legends of Atlantis, III, 25. 

William Tell, XXIII, 171. 

The Beast Epic of Reineke Vos, VIII, 
734. 

The Pied Piper of Hamelin, XI, 365; 
XXV, 616. 

The Nibelungen Lied, XVII, 487. 

The legends peculiar to different 
countries are also noticed in their ap- 
propriate places, as: 

Legends of Afghanistan, I, 213. 

Legends of Arabia, II, 222. 

Legends of Central America, 1, 617, etc. 

5, Fairy Stories and Folk Tales. — For 
special articles, see VIII, 747; XXIII, 



32-34. See also the following sections, 
paragraphs, and short articles- 

Fairies, II, 178. 

Brownies, II, 178. 

Fairies in Celtic literature, V, 282. 

Morgan, the Fay, V, 282. 

Oberon, XVII, 724. 

Charles Perrault, XVIII, 568; XXIII, 
32 b.' 

The Brothers Grimm, XI, 178 a. 

Hans Christian Andersen, XXV, 184. 

6, Fables. — See special article, VIII, 
732. 

Sanscrit fables, XXI, 301. 

^sop, the Greek fabulist, I, 190. 

La Fontaine, the French writer of 
fables, XIV, 204. 

Kriloff, the Russian collector of fables, 
XIV, 149. 



CHAPTER XXI 



Readings in the Study of the Supernatural 



"To make modern and familiar, things supernatural and causeless." 

—Alps Well that JEnds Well. 



Occult 
Sciences 



In this chapter it is proposed to point 
out to the reader a few of the most 
interesting articles in the Bri- 
tannica relating to supernat- 
ural phenomena, the occult 
sciences, magic, mystery, superstition, 
etc. No attempt will be made towards 
a classification or logical arrangement 
of the subjects, nor is it possible to pre- 
sent anything approaching to a com- 
plete list of the articles and parts of 
articles which relate directly or indi- 
rectly to the supernatural. But it is 



believed that every student will find in 
these readings matter that will afford 
entertainment and instruction. 

Before the era of modern science, the 
belief in the supernatural held a much 
larger place in the estimation of man- 
kind than it is possible for it to hold 
again. Alchemy, astrology, and magic 
reigned undisputed, and knowledge of 
every kind was tinctured with supersti- 
tion. Let us begin our readings, there- 
fore, with selections from articles 
relating to these defunct sciences. 



HEADINGS IN THE STUD? OF THE SUPERNATURAL 



95 



1. Alchemy has been very aptly de- 
scribed as "the sickly but imaginative 

infancy through which modern 
chemistry had to pass before 
it attained its majority." See the very 
interesting article on this subject, I, 
406-14. Read also the following arti- 
cles and selections: 

Paracelsus, XVIII, 238. 

Jakob Boehme, III, 740. 

Hermes Trismegistus, XI, 671. 

Alexander of Aphrodisias, I, 429. 

Roger Bacon, III, 188; I, 168. 

Albertus Magnus, I, 401, 

Cornelius Agrippa, I, 371. 

Raymond Lully, XV, 64. 

Arnold of Villeneuve, II, 542. 

The Rosicrucians, XX, 875. 

Cagliostro, IV, 569. 

Alembic, I, 422. 

2. Astrology was the forerunner of 
the modern science of astronomy, and, 

like alchemy, was not alto- 
gether unproductive of good 
results. For a general history of this 
interesting subject, see the special ar- 
ticle in volume II, 646-50. Also, con- 
sult the following short articles: 

Horoscope, XV, 207. 

Zodiac, XXIV, 829; VII, 475. 

William Lilly, XIV, 649. 

Nostradamus, XVII, 611. 

Robert Fludd, IX, 305. 

John Dee, VII, 21. 

Michael Scott, XXI, 490. 

Girolamo Cardan, V, 80; II, 648. 

Napier's belief in Astrology, XVII, 190. 

Astrology among the Parsees, XVIII, 
331. 

3. Necromancy. An important arti- 
cle on magic, its history and influence, 

may be found in XV, 200. 
Magic among prehistoric na- 
tions, VIII, 547. 



Astrology 



Mysticism 



Egyptian Magic, XV, 201. 

Babylonian and Assyrian Magic, XV, 
202. 

Greek and Roman Magic, XV, 202. 

Magic among Asiatic Nations, XV, 204. 

Magic in Christendom, XV, 205. 

Necromancy in England, VII, 21. 

Divination, or the art of discovering 
secret or future things by preternatural 
means, VII, 254. 

superstitious ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^f ^.^_ 

covering through natural 
signs the will of the gods. III, 63. 

Palmistry, the art of divining personal 
history from the lines in the palm of 
hand, XXVIII, 321. 

Ordeal, or the mediaeval method of 
discovering the will of God, XVII, 842. 

Dreams and their interpretation, VII, 
391,255 a.' 

Lycanthropy, or the metamorphosis 
of men into wolves, XV, 90. 
The mystical arrangement 
of letters, called Abracadabra, I, 54. 

The mystical word Abraxas, I, 56. 

The mystical ornament or charm, 
Amulet, I, 685. 

The mystical science, Kabbalah, XIII, 
820. 

4. Demonology, or the influence of 
spiritual beings upon the affairs of men, 
VII, 53-57. 

Sorcery, or familiar inter- 
course with demons, VII, 56. 

Witchcraft, XXIV, 653 — a history of 
the laws and methods by which differ- 
ent nations have attempted to suppress 
this supposed crime. 

Exorcism, or the means by which evil 
spirits are expelled, VIII, 705. 
Devil, VII, 117. 
Ahriman, I, 376; XVII, 882; 
XXIII, 257; Beelzebub, III, 434. 
Asmodeus, II, 624. 



Witchcraft 



Evil Spirits 



96 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Mephistopheles, XVI, 34. 

Faust, the sorcerer of mediaeval leg- 
end, IX, 49; X, 482. 

Merlin, the wizard of Britain, XX, 661. 

Apollonius of Tyana, philosopher and 
magician, 11, 165. 

Eeginald Scot, English writer on 
witchcraft, XXI, 491. 

Cotton Mather, the New England op- 
ponent of witchcraft, XV, 637. 

5. The history of the belief in super- 
natural beings and in supernatural 
gypgj. influences may be further illus- 

naturai trated by reference to the fol- 

influences ^^^^^^ articles: 

Mysticism, XVII, 136-42. 

Angels, II, 25; II, 160. 

Azrael, XXV, 312. 

Raphael, XX, 286. 

Gabriel, X, 5. 

Michael, XVI, 234. 

Apparitions, II, 176. 

Astral Spirits, XXV, 279. 

Ghosts, II, 179; XV, 200. 

Spiritualism, II, 181; XXII, 419; the 
Fox sisters, XXVII, 18; Daniel D. Home, 
XXVII, 308; Robert D. Owen, XXVIII, 307. 

Fetichism, II, 41. 

Totemism, XXIII, 496. 

Prophecy, XIX, 836. 

Inspiration, XIII, 161; XIX, 208. 

Second Sight, II, 176. 

Hypnotism, II, 445. 

Mesmerism, XV, 279. 

Telepathy, XXIX, 242-43. 

Theosophy, XXIII, 298-99; XXIX, 267. 

Augury, III, 63. 

Divination, VII, 254. 

Bibliomancy, XXV, 464. 

Divination by Cup, XXVI, 334. 



The Sibyls, XXII, 18; XI, 129. See 
also Augurs, III, 63; Oracles, XVII, 831; 
XIX, 100. 

Apotheosis, II, 174, See also Metem- 
psychosis, XVI, 111. 

6, The popular belief in imaginary 
creatures, as set forth in very many of 
the classical legends, in the 
^TelST'' romances of the Middle Ages, 
and in the fairy tales and 
folklore of almost every nation in the 
world, is the subject of numerous arti- 
cles. 

The following are especially notice- 
able: 

Genii, XXVII, 76. 

Manes, XV, 485. 

Lares, XIV, 313. 

Penates, XVIII, 499. 

Nymphs, XVII, 707. 

Dryads, VII, 421. 

Fauns, IX, 47. 

Chimaera, V, 544. 

Harpies, XI, 438. 

Mermaids and mermen, XVI, 44. 

Griffin, XI, 174. 

Dragon, VII, 333. 

Werewolves, XV, 91. 

Fairies, VIII, 747. 

Oberon and Titania, XVII, 724. 

Morgana, V, 282. 

Elves, VIII, 748. 

Incubi and Succubi, VII, 55 b.' 

Vampire, XXIV, 58. 

Banshee, XXV, 352. 

See the references to astrology in 
Readings in Astronomt/, in Chapter IX 
of this Guide; also the references to 
alchemy in the chapter entitled The 
Chemist. 



CHAPTER XXII 



The Desultoky Keader's Course 

"Read what amuses you and pleases you." — Robert Lowe, 
" Adjust your proposed amount of reading to your time and 
inclination." — Dr. Thomas Arnold. 



To THE person who takes pleasure 
(and who does not?) in browsing among 
the good things in books, with- 
^p^iefsurT ^"^ undertaking to read sys- 
tematically, the Encyclopcedia 
Britamiica offers advantages which can 
be derived from no other publication. 
Here may be found all kinds of literary 
nuggets — readings on all manner of 
subjects — short articles, long articles — 
anything and everything to suit the de- 
mands of the hour. You need not at- 
tempt to follow any special course of 
reading ; read only that which pleases 
you, and you may be sure that, what- 
ever you may select from the Britannica, 
you cannot fail to be improved thereby. 
If your time is limited, choose some- 
thing that is brief and light ; if you are 
in a studious mood, take up a subject 
that will make you think, and that will 
be to your mind what brisk exercise is 
to your body. Among the thousands of 
articles with which you may thus oc- 
cupy your spare moments, the following 
are mentioned merely as examples : 

I. CURIOUS INVENTIONS, ETC. 

The automaton. III, 123. 
The magic lantern (fully illustrated), 
XV, 212. 

The guillotine, XI, 233. 
Tunneling, XXIII, 662 (illustrated). 
Wax figures, XXIV, 486. 
Horn-books, XII, 174. 
Perfumery, XVIII, 536. 

7 



Inventions 



Kature 



Balloons, I, 169. 
Fire-engines, IX, 203, 204. 
Hydraulic clock, V, 722. 
Fire works, XX, 141. 
Flying machines, I, 167. 

II. NATURAL CURIOSITIES, SCENERY, ETC. 

Yellowstone National Park, XXIV, 
773-75; XXIX, 618-20. 

The Grand Canon of the 
Colorado, Arizona, VI, 147; 
XXV, 237. 

Petrified forest in Apache Co., Arizona, 
XXV, 237-38. 

The Luray cavern, XV, 68. 

The Mammoth cave, XV, 455. 

Fingal's Cave, isle of Staffa, V, 231 a.' 

Niagara Falls, XVII, 485. 

Whirlpools, XXIV, 571. 

Whirlwinds and tornadoes, XVI, 134. 

Geysers, X, 497. 

Glaciers, X, 558. 

Natural gas, XXVIII, 175. 

Artesian Wells, XXV, 256. 

Giant's Causeway, X, 511. 

Tides, XXIII, 375. 

Cave, V, 230-35. 

III. STRANGE ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 

Prehistoric monsters, XII, 734. 
The ichneumon, XII, 665. 
The dodo, VII, 278. 
The honey-guide, XII, 143. 
The sloth, XXII, 171. 
Sea-serpents, XXI, 638. 
Mermaids, XVI, 44. 

(97) 



98 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Trees 



Dragons, VII, 333. 
Chimsera, V, 544. 

Harpies, XI, 438. 

Baobab tree, I, 240. 
Sacred fig, IX, 135. 
Upas tree, XXIII, 916. 
Orchids, XVII, 839. 

IV. CURIOUS CUSTOMS, ETC. 

Deodands, VII, 87. 

Ordeal of Fire and of Battle, XVII, 843. 
April Fool Day, II, 187. 
Ts?oms May Day in Old England, 
XV, 654. 

Hallowe'en, XI, 355. 

Beltane, III, 478. 

The Morris-Dance, XVI, 878. 

Caste, V, 162. 

Clans, V, 697. 

Saturnalia, XXI, 336. 

The Nile festival, VII, 630. 

Exorcism, VIII, 705. 

Fehmic Court (a secret tribunal in 
Germany, twelfth to sixteenth century), 
IX, 56. 

Pillory, XIX, 104. 

V. DEATH AND BURIAL. 

Funeral rites, IX, 724. 
Burial, IV, 480. 
Embalming, VIII, 146. 
Mummies, XVII, 26. 
Wakes, XXIX, 468. 
Cremation, XXVI, 307; VI, 500. 
National cemeteries, XXVI, 95. 
Tombs, XXIX, 297. 
Mausoleum, XI, 342-43.. 
Suttee, XXII, 765. 

VI. HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 

History of Flags, IX, 241. 
Guilds, XI, 230-32. 

The Man of the Iron Mask, 
XIII, 370. 
Chevalier d'Eon, VIII, 404. 
Alexander Selkirk, XXI, 670, b.'" 



Historical 



People 
and 
Things 



History of Newspapers, XVII, 422. 

Piracy, XIX, 125. 

Mutiny on the Bounty, III, 717 a" 
XIX, 141. 

Hypatia, XII, 631. 

Semiramis, XXI, 671. 

Aspasia, II, 624. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold, II, 423. 

The Spanish Armada, II, 476. 

Great fires: in London, XIV, 835; in 
Chicago, V, 531; in Boston, IV, 66. 

World's Fair, XXIX, 594. 

International Exhibitions, VIII, 702; 

XXVIII, 323, 329. 

VII. MISCELLANEOUS. 

James Holman, the blind traveller, 
XII, 106. 

Zerah Colburn, the mathe- 
matical prodigy, XXVI, 226. 

Joseph Scaliger, " the great- 
est scholar of modern times," 
XXI, 378. 

The Admirable Crichton, VI, 510. 

Kaspar Hauser, the mysterious Ger- 
man youth, XI, 467. 

Christian Heinrich Heinecken, the 
precocious child, XI, 560. 

Dwarfs, VII, 489; XX, 126. 

Siamese Twins, XVI, 791. 

Heredity, I, 82. 

Animal Magnetism, XV, 279. 

Hypnotism, XV, 279-85. 

The Malthusian doctrine, XV, 346. 

Darwinism, XXIV, 85-92. 

Cryptography, VI, 592. 

White Magic (sleight of hand), XV, 
207. See also Legerdemain, XIV, 415; 
Ventriloquism, XXIX, 428. 

Pillar-Hermits, XVI, 727 a.' 

Anabaptists, I, 690. 

Flagellants, IX, 245. 

Thugs, XXIII, 348. 

Assassins, II, 631. 

Story of the Tichborne Claimant, 

XXIX, 283. 



PART III 



THE BUSY WORLD 



99 

Lot a 



CHAPTER XXni 



The Manufactuker 

"Active doer, noble liver, 
Strong to labor, sure to conquer." 



Few subjects engage the attention of 
so large a number of busy men as does 
Maker ^^^^ ^^ manufacturing. Who, 
or Con- indeed, is not either directly 
Burner ^^ indirectly interested in the 
making of things, either by hand or by 
machinery ? You may not be a manu- 
facturer yourself, but you are necessarily 
the patron of many manufacturers. You 
are the consumer of the products of 
various manufacturing industries, and 
very naturally you have a curiosity to 
know something about the processes by 
which these products have been evolved 
from raw material and made into their 
present forms of usefulness. The En- 
cyclopcedia Britamiica will give you the 
desired information. 

If you are engaged in some particular 
line of manufacturing, the Britannica 
will add to your knowledge concerning 
it. It will tell you what are the best 
materials to be used, the most econom- 
ical processes to be employed, and the 
most desirable qualities to be sought in 
the products which you design to manu- 
facture. Besides this, it will probably 
give you a great deal of interesting 
historical information concerning the 
origin, development, and various fluctu- 
ations of the business in which you are 
engaged — information which, although 
not absolutely necessary to your success, 



■Robert Browning. 

may nevertheless add directly to your 
enjoyment and incidentally to your 
prosperity. 

This subject covers so wide a field and 
embraces so many different industries 
that, within our limited space, we can 
do but little more than make bare refer- 
ences to some of the most important 
articles contained in the Britannica. 
Let us first notice some of the manufac- 
tures of 

textile products. 

1. Wool and Woolen Manufactures 
is the title of a special article, XXIV, 
687. The first part of this ar- 
ticle, relating to the early his- 
tory of the woolen industry, will interest 
every reader. See next the article on 
woolen manufactures in the United 
States, XXIX. 587, where the latest in- 
formation and statistics are given. Now 
read what is said of 

Wool fibre, IX, 115. 

Bleaching of wool, III, 714. 

Dyeing of wool, VII, 493. 

Cassimeres, XXVI, 81. 

Spinning, XXIV, 766; XIV, 670. 

Loom, XXIV, 490; XXIII, 223, 228. 

Turn to the illustrated article on 
Textiles, XXIII, 228, and read the in- 
teresting history there given of the art 
of weaving. 

(101) 



Wool 



102 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



riax 



Cotton 



2. For an account of flax and linen 
manufactures, see XIV, 670. 

The manufacture of linen in 

England, VIII, 210; in Ireland, 

II, 125, and XIII, 236; in Scotland. VII, 

461. 

Cultivation of flax in America, XXV, 94, 

Bleaching of linen. III, 712. 

3. For a complete history of cotton 
and cotton manufactures, see VI, 427. 

Cotton in the United States, XXIII, 
880; XXIX, 364; in India, XII, 787; in 
Egypt, VII, 614, 681; in Brazil, 

IV, 204. 

Cotton manufacture in England, VIII, 
208; in India, XII, 800, 802; in Russia, 
XXI, 889. 

Bleaching of cotton. III, 705. 

Dyeing of cotton, VII, 497. 

Cotton-spinning frame, 11, 474. 

Robert Owen's improvements in cot- 
ton spinning, XVIII, 90. 

Cotton yarns, XXIV, 767. 

The spinning-jenny, II, 474, and VI, 
434. 

The spinning-wheel, XXIV, 766. 

Calico, VI, 433, 444. 

Calico printing, IV, 606. 

Ginghams, X, 539. 

Gauze, X, 106. 

Laces, XIV, 184. 

See Samuel Slater, XXIX, 100. 

Cottonseed and Cottonseed-oil, XXVI, 
292. 

4. For a history of silk and silk manu- 
factures, see XXII, 61, 67. 

Manufacture of silk in the United 
States, XXIX, 89; in England, VIII, 210; 
in India, XII, 800; in China, 

V, 555; in France, IX, 459; in 
Italy, XIII, 451. 

Silk in ancient times, XXIII, 226. 
Bleaching of Silk, III, 714. 



Sim 



The silkworm, IV, 530, and XIII, 157. 
Silk from spiders, II, 259. 

5. Miscellaneous. 

Hosiery, XII, 312, and VIII, 211. 

Knitting, XIV, 128. 

Invention of the stocking frame, XII, 
312. 

Cloth, weaving of, XXIV, 489, 493. 

Ancient weaving of cloth, XXIII, 223. 

Improvements in looms, XXVII, 629. 

Carpets, V, 112; Persian carpets, V, 
113; XVIII, 636; Turkish, V, 113; Ori- 
ental, XXIII, 229. 

Canvas, V, 36; canvas for sails, XXI, 
161. 

Straw manufactures, XXII, 622. 

Rope-making, XX, 866. 

Twine manufacture, XX, 867. 

Rhea fibre, XX, 520. 

MINERAL PRODUCTS. 

1. Iron manufactures, XIII, 284. 

Statistics of iron manufacture, XIII, 
368; iron industry in the United 
States, XXIII, 868; XXVII, 
401 ; iron as building material, 
IV, 400. 

Strength of iron, XXII, 634. 

The Blast Furnace, IX, 739; III, 475; 
XXVII, 403. 

Melting-point of Metals, XXVIII, 67. 

Puddling, XIII, 328. 

Pig iron, XIII, 290, 313. 

Cast iron, XIII, 287, 326. 

Manufacture of steel, XIII, 368; 
strength of steel, XXII, 634; rigidity of, 
VII, 707; manufacture in the United 
States, XXIII, 882; XXVII, 407; use in 
ships, XVII, 295. 

Bessemer steel, XXVII, 408. 

Steel castings, XXVII, 411. 

Nails, XVII, 172. 

Screws, XXI, 578. 

Locks, XIV, 750. 



Iron 



THE MANUFACTURER 



103 



Galvanized iron, XIII, 366. 

Foundry operations, IX, 423. 

The casting of metal, IX, 423, 

Rolling-mills, XIII, 337. 

Wire, XXIV, 647; wire-drawing, XXIX, 
572; strength of, XVI, 70; elasticity of, 
VII, 694, 697; telegraph wire, XXIII, 121; 
wire nails, XVII, 172; wire rope, XX, 
868; wire netting, XVII, 369; wire fences, 
I, 276; wire-glass, XXIX, 572. 

Stoves, XXII, 607. 

Iron pipes, II, 193. 

Pipe-making, XXVIII, 433. 

2. Copper, VI,. 308; copper wire, XXIV, 
647. 

Brass (alloy of copper and 
TdTin zi^c), IV, 195; zinc, XXIV, 823. 
Tin, XXIII, 427; strength of, 
XXII, 634. 

Tin-plate, XIII, 367. 

Tin-plate manufacture in the United 
States, XXIX, 290. 

Can-manufacture and canners' tools, 
XXVI, 47. , 

Bronze (alloy of copper and tin), VI, 
311. 

Early casting of bronze, 11, 304. 

Strength of, XXII, 634. 

Bronze work, XVI, 77. 

3. Silver, XXII, 76. 
Silver plate, XXII, 78. 

Silver plate work, XIX, 189. 
' MeuTs Silvering, XXII, 78. 

Silver wire, XXIV, 648. 

Use of silver in mirrors, XVI, 523. 

Silver lace, X, 671. 

Silversmiths in Rome, II, 320. 

Gold, X, 659. 

Gold plate, XIX, 189. 

Gold wire, XXIV, 648. 

Gold thread, XXIII, 228. 

Gold lace, X, 671; gold cloth, XXIII, 
228. 



Pottery 



Ancient workers in gold, XXIII, 228. 

See now the chapter entitled The 
Miner, in this volume; also The Railroad 
Man, and The Machinist. 

4. Pottery, XIX, 617; burning of, XX, 
139; glazing, IV, 45. 

Pottery industry in the 
United States, XXVIII, 473. 
Palissy's pottery, XVIII, 191. 
Wedgwood's pottery, XXIV, 503. 
Japanese pottery, XIII, 600. 
Indian pottery, XII, 801. 
The potteries, XXVIII, 473. 
Kaolin. XIV, 3. 

Porcelain, clay for, XIV, 3, and XVI, 
442. 
Chinese porcelain, XIV, 92. 
Japanese porcelain, XIII, 600. 
Limoges ware, XIV, 658. 
Sevres ware, XIX, 657. 

5. Glass, history of, X, 576; XXVII, 106. 
Manufacture of glass, X, 583. 

Manufacture of glass in the 
United States, XXVII, 106. 
Annealing, II, 57. 
Colors of glass, XXIV, 449. 
Painting on, X, 596. 
Venetian glass-works, XVII, 54. 
Glass-cutting, VII, 144. 
Plate glass, X, 591 ; XXVII, 107. 
Wire-glass, XXIX, 572. 
Window glass, X, 588, 598. 
Glass bottles, IV, 153, and X, 593. 
Pressed-glass, XXVII, 107. 
Mirrors, XVI, 523. 
Lenses, XXIII, 150 a.'" 

6. Leather, XIV, 380. 
Artificial leather, XIV, 392. 
Latest processes, XXVII, 562. 
Shoemaking, XXI, 869. 

7. Paper, XVIII, 221. 
Papier-mache, XVIII, 232. 



Glass 



104 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Parchment, XVIII, 276. 
Linoleum, XIV, 682. 
Esparto, VIII, 483 b.'" 

8. Flour, XXVI, 666; IX, 300; III, 216. 
Bread, III, 215. 

Cracknels, III, 218. 

Macaroni, XV, 126. 

The Canning Industry, XXVI, 48. 

Raisins, XXIX, 455. 

Sugar, XXII, 655. 
^ products Sugar -making machinery, 
XXIX, 190. 

Beet sugar, I, 339. 

Glucose, XXVII, 111. 

Maple sugar, XXVIII, 22. 

Molasses, XXII, 659. 

Salt, XXI, 239; XXIII, 870. 

Animal foods, see Packing, XXVIII, 
314, and Abattoirs, XXV, 11. 

9. Brick-making, IV, 250. 
Ancient bricks, XIX, 621, 638. 
Glazed brick, XVII, 41. 
Tiles, XXIII, 414; IV, 252. 
Gutta-percha, XI, 301. 
India-rubber, XII, 875, 880; Goodyear's 

inventions, XXVII, 125. 
"neoif Rope-making, XXVIII, 618. 

Straw manufactures, XXII, 
622. 

Baskets, III, 364. 

Needles, XVII, 322. 

Pigments — methods of manufactur- 
ing paints, XIX, 94. 

Hats, XI, 462; straw hats, XXII, 
622. 

Gloves, X, 617; XIV, 389. 

Pins, XIX, 106. 

Button-making, IV, 533. 

American watches, XXIX, 496. 



Fans, IX, 25. 
Furniture, IX, 745. 

Very interesting are the accounts that 
are given of some of the great manufac- 
turing centres, such as: 
Manufac- Manchester, the centre of 
Centres the English cotton industry, 
XV, 467. 

Birmingham, noted for its iron and 
steel works. III, 677. 

Sheffield, famous for its cutlery, XXI, 
822. 

Philadelphia, and its extensive and 
varied industries, XVIII, 750. 

Pittsburg, and its iron manufactures, 
XXVIII, 436. 

Lowell, and its cotton mills, XXVII, 
638. 

Lawrence, and its cotton and woolen 
mills, XIV, 370. 

Lynn, famous for the manufacture of 
shoes, XXVII, 651. 

Boston, IV, 64; Newark, XVII, 379; 
Wilmington, XXIV, 621; Birmingham, 
Ala., XXV, 483 ; and scores of other manu- 
facturing cities of similar importance. 

For statistics and other information 
concerning manufactures in all the prin- 
cipal countries of the world, 
see the appropriate paragraph 
under the name of each country. For 
example: 

Manufactures in England, VIII, 208. 

Manufactures in Germany, X, 412. 

Manufactures in Arabia, II, 213. 

See World's Fairs, XXIX, 594. 

But the intelligent reader will require 
no further assistance from the Guide in 
finding such information. 



statistics 



CHAPTER XXIV 

The Mechanic 



" Thou art deeper read and better skilled." — Titus Atidronicus-. 



Artisan 
or Bungler 



What constitutes the difference be- 
tween the good artisan and the bungler? 
Knowledge and skill. These 
may be attained in some de- 
gree by practice in the hand- 
ling of tools ; but that broader knowl- 
edge which leads to success, and that 
more perfect skill which wins distinction, 
can be acquired only through diligent 
study. The mechanic who would rise to 
a higher position in his calling must learn 
all about the nature of the materials 
with which he works ; he must know 
what are the best tools to use, and why ; 
he must understand the philosophy of 
the forces with which he deals ; and he 
must seek to comprehend the natural 
laws which govern or regulate the oper- 
ations connected with his particular 
handicraft. This is the kind of knowl- 
edge which enables the humblest work- 
man to develop into the skilled artisan, 
the foreman, the manager, and the in- 
ventor. 

Now, there is no other printed publi- 
cation in the world which offers the 
means of acquiring so much of this kind 
of knowledge as does the Encijclopcedia 
Britannica. There is hardly a single 
difficult problem connected with the 
laws of mechanics or of machinery which 
is not clearly explained in the Britannica. 
There is hardly a knotty question with 
reference to tools, materials, or products 
which is not elucidated or answered in 
one of these volumes. The successful 



mechanic will not always wait for these 

difficulties to present themselves. He 

will study the principles of 

""SpS"' ^is ^^^^^ ^nd every detail 
concerning it, so as to be 
ready beforehand for all emergencies. 
Instead of running with childish ques- 
tions to his foreman, he is ready himself 
to give instructions to those who are in 
need of them. His workmanship is of 
superior character. He is constantly 
improving, while his fellows who work 
without thought remain always on the 
same level. His greater knowledge leads 
to greater ability. His employer recog- 
nizes the greater value of his services. 
Promotion comes to him as a matter of 
course. Success and fortune are waiting 
for him — and all because he has made 
use of the opportunities for self-culture 
which lie within the reach of everyone 
who will take the trouble to secure them. 
In these days there are so many kinds 
of handicrafts and so many classes of 
mechanics, that to mark out complete 
courses of study with relation to all 
would require more space than we have 
at command. But the Encyclopcedia 
Britannica contains a vast amount of 
valuable information concerning every 
one of them ; and it is the object of the 
Guide to help you to get at some of this 
information in a methodical way, and 
thereby make you the better able to 
carry on these studies independently 
and without aid. 

(105) 



106 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Your first thought, no doubt, will be 
to turn at once to the article Mechanics, 
XV, 683; but it will be better to leave 
this article until you have made a study 
of some of the materials and tools with 
which you propose to work. In this 
way you will gradually approach the 
difficult science of mechanics, and by 
and by be prepared to read portions 
of this exhaustive article with a more 
thorough appreciation than is now pos- 
sible. 

THE WOOD-WORKER. 

Are you a worker in wood? Here 
are a few articles, or parts of articles, 
wood which you will read with 

work pleasure and profit: 

Lumber, IX, 355. 

Strength of materials, XXII, 623; 
XXIX, 171. 

Bending of plank, XV, 752. 

Carpentry, IV, 426. 

Sawing of wood, XXI, 359. 

Joinery, IV, 433. 

Fir, IX, 193. 

Teak, XXIII, 110. 

Hemlock, II, 280. 

Spruce, IX, 193. 

Oak, XVII, 709. 

Pine, XIX, 110. 

Poplar, XIX, 525. 

Rosewood, XX, 874. 

Mahogany, XV, 290. 

The early use of tools, VIII, 542. 
The plane, XI, 391. 

The auger, XI, 392. 

Other hand tools, XI, 390. 

Machine tools, XV, 153. 

Turners' tools, XIV, 324. 

The hammer, XI, 379. 

The lathe, XIV, 323. 

Glue, X, 119, and IV, 437. 

Veneering, XXIV, 150, and IX, 746. 

Varnish, XXIV, 99. 

Barrel-making, XXV, 368. 



Tools 



Metal Work 



Wood-carving, XXIV, 678, and V, 147. 

These are mentioned here simply 
as samples of the numerous articles 
wherein the wood-working mechanic 
will find practical information concern- 
ing the materials, tools, etc., of his 
handicraft. If you are a carpenter or 
builder, turn now to Chapter XXIX in 
this volume, entitled The Builder, and 
observe the long and valuable list of 
references there given. 

THE METAL-WORKER. 

The metal-worker will find that most 
of the above references are of direct im- 
portance to him also, and he 
will scarcely be willing to omit 
any of them from his course of reading. 
Besides these there are numerous others 
which he will regard as having a special 
value, referring, as they do, directly to 
the handicraft in which he is the most 
deeply interested. Here are a few of 
them : 

Anvil, II, 129; XI, 380. 

Smith-work in building, IV, 456. 

Annealing, II, 57, and XIII, 362. 

Forge, IX, 363; its history, XIII, 296; 
forging-machines, IX. 364. 

Foundry, IX, 423; XIII, 365. 

Bellows for smelting ores, XVI, 65. 

Blast furnace, IX, 738; HI, 474; XXVII, 
403. 

Iron, XIII, 284. 

Iron as building material, IV, 400. 

Iron-work in architecture, II, 410; 

XVI, 77. 

Famous iron-works: at Barrow-in- 
Furness, England, III, 340; at Stafford, 
England, XXII, 459; at Neviansk, Russia, 

XVII, 378. 

Iron bridges, IV, 300. 
Nail-making, XVII, 172. 
Tack-making, XXIX, 217. 
Steel, XIII, 284; XXVII, 401. 



THE MECHANIC 



107 



Tube-making, IV, 196. 

Valves, XXII, 523. 

Wire-making, XXIX, 572. 

Wire, XXIV, 647; wire-drawing, IV, 
196. 

Arms, II, 485; artillery, II, 572; rifles, 
XI, 249; rifling of cannon, XI, 261. (See 
Chapter XLI in this Guide, entitled The 
Soldier.) 

Assaying, II, 633; XVI, 68. 

Boilers for steam engines, XXII, 517; 
improvement in, for abating smoke, 
XXII, 190. 

Brass, IV, 195. 

Bronze, IV, 330. 

Copper, VI, 308. (See Chapter XXXVII 
in this Guide, entitled The Miner) 

Electro-plating, VIII, 109. (See Chap- 
ter XXVI in this Guide, entitled The 
Electrician?} 

Metallurgy, XVI, 62. 

Metal work, XVI, 76. 

Tin-plate manufacture in the United 
States, XXIX, 290. 

THE leather-worker. 

There are mechanics who work neither 

in wood nor in metal. Of these, one of 

the most prominent is the 

^V^^l^ man who works with leather, 

Leatner ^ _ ' 

or with the prepared skins 
of animals. For him there are, in the 
jBnYawn/m, such articles as the following: 

Tanning, XIV, 381. 

Tannin, XXIII, 52. 

Leather, XIV, 380. 

Buff leather, XXV^ 634. 

Cordovan leather, XXVI, 284. 

Artificial leather, XIV, 392. 

New process in making leather, 
XXVII, 562. 



Paper 



Shoemaking, XXI, 869. 

Harness-making and saddlery, XXI, 
150. 

Stamped leather for wall decoration, 
XVII, 43. 

Morocco leather, XIV, 388. 

Russian leather, XIV, 388; III, 603. 

Book-binding, IV, 36; XIV, 538. 

THE PAPER-WORKER. 

Then there is the worker on paper, 
who will find the following articles 
brimful of information: 
Paper, XVIII, 221; manufac- 
ture of, XVIII, 223; bleaching of mate- 
rials, III, 713. 

Esparto, VIII, 483 b.'" 

Ruling of paper, XXII, 478. 

Wall paper, IV, 459; XVII, 44. 

Papier-mache, XVIII, 232. 

Paper pulp, XVIII, 229, 230. 

See the chapter in this volume en- 
titled The Laborer. 

THE STONE-WORKER. 

Building-stone, XXV, 638. 

Stone cutting and dressing, XXIX, 166. 

Strength of building-stone, XXII, 634, 

Plaster-work, IV, 451. 

Cements, V, 285; IV, 411; XIV, 654. 

Stone pavements, IV, 423. 

Chimney-pieces, IV, 423. 

Limestone, X, 206. 

Marble, XV, 535. 

Marble veneer, XVII, 41. 

Sandstone, X, 212. 

Granite, XI, 43. 

See the references to labor and wages 
in Chapter XLIV, entitled The Political 
Economist, in this volume. 



CHAPTER XXV 



The Machinist 
"He that loves reading has everything within his reach.'' — William Godwin. 



Machines 



In addition to the articles already 
mentioned in the chapter addressed to 
the Mechanic, the practical 
machinist will find a great 
many others which will be of direct and 
special aid to him in his calling. He 
will want to make a careful study of 
that portion of the article Mechanics 
which refers directly to the theory of 
machines, XV, 760. He will want to 
read what is said about their purposes 
and effects, XV, 781. There may be 
other portions also of the same article 
which will answer troublesome ques- 
tions or difficult problems that come in 
his way, and to find what he needs he 
should refer to the index to the article, 
XV, 758. The article on Machine Tools, 
XV, 153, will have a special value to 
him. The supplementary article on 
special forms of machine tools, XXVII, 
665, gives an exceedingly interesting 
description of some of the latest inven- 
tions of this class. See also Tool-mak- 
ing, XXIX, 301. 

The Steam-Engine, XXII, 490, a very 
complete and comprehensive treatise 
(sixty-five pages, illustrated) 
written by Professor Ewing 
of Dundee, one of the most 
eminent of living authorities. Addi- 
tional matter concerning the invention 
of the steam-engine by Watt may be 
found in XXIV, 433. The improve- 
ments made by Murdock are briefly 
noted in XVII, 60, and those of Trevi- 
thick, in XXIII, 589. See also Govern- 
ors, XXVII, 133. 

(108) • 



Steam- 
Engine 



Various applications of the steam-en- 
gine are described: Its use in steamships, 
XXII, 543, XXI, 862, and XXVIII, 26; 
its use in locomotive engines, XX, 232, 
254, XXII, 564, and XXVII, 618; its use 
in land carriages, VIII, 637; its applica- 
tion to farm machinery, I, 271, etc. 

The article Hydromechanics, XII, 451; 
the application of water to mechanical 
purposes, as described in the 
^mechanics chapters on Hydraulic Ma- 
chinery, XII, 549, and XXVII, 
348. The hydraulic press, XV, 761, and 
the history of its invention, IV, 192. 
The article on Calendar, IV, 605-606. 

The description of Montgolfier's hy- 
draulic ram, IV, 157. 

The description of the hydraulic ele- 
vator (lift), XII, 550, XIV, 577, and 
XXVI, 550. 

Of water motors in general, XII, 549. 

Of water power in mechanics, XV, 783. 

Of water wheels and their action, XII, 
454, 553. 

Late improvements in water wheels, 
XXIX, 503. 

Of the uses of air in connection with 
mechanics, read the article Pneumatics, 
XIX, 252; refer also to XII, 455, 462. 

Its special application in air locks is 
noticed in XXV, 107; in the air-washer 
for extinguishing fires, XXVI, 
647; in the pneumatic power 
transmitter, XV, 761; in pneumatic 
tubes, XII, 517; in the air-engine, I, 379; 
in the air-gun, I, 380; in the air-pump, 
XVI, 35; XIX, 257 b'" ; I, 380. 



Pneumatics 



THE MACHINIST 



109 



Balloons 



As to the application of air in propel- 
ling machinery, see Windmills, XXIV, 
630; XV, 783. 

Wind carriages, XXII, 573. 

See also what is said about the wind 
in navigation, XVII, 282. In this con- 
nection it will be interesting to learn 
many important facts concerning the 
nature of air: Its composition. III, 29; 
its density, HI, 329; its weight. III, 26; 
its other physical properties, XIX, 252. 

Here, too, you may read of the efforts 
that have been made to navigate the 
air, I, 169, with a description of all the 
great balloons that have ever been con- 
structed. Whether it is possible ever to 
build a successful air-ship no one can 
yet predict. The problem of aeronau- 
tics has, however, engaged the attention 
of inventors for many years, 
and the history of their efforts 
and experiments is in the highest degree 
interesting and instructive. Read of 
the invention of the ballooii by Stephen 
and Joseph Montgolfier, I, 169; of the 
later experiments by Langley, Maxim, 
Chanute, Lilienthal, and others, XXV, 
55; and of the aeronautic associations 
which have been formed for the encour- 
agement of further experiments and in- 
ventions. 

But air is only a gas, — or rather a 
mixture of two gases, I, 379, — and much 
that is true with reference to its proper- 
ties applies also to gases in general. 
And so the machinist who finds it neces- 
sary to become acquainted with the 
laws of pneumatics will not only study 
the properties of air in motion and at 
rest, but will learn all that he can about 
gases in general, VI, 276, their physical 
properties, XIX, 252, and their diffusion, 
VII, 187. 

Of the application of gas to the pur- 
poses of machinery, see what is said 



Gas 



Horse-Power , 



about gas-engines, XXII, 550; expansion 
of gases by heat, XI, 512, and XX, 360; 
elasticity of gases, VII, 695; 
dilation of gases. III, 32; their 
molecular laws, XVI, 633. 

Then read about the discovery and 
use of natural gas in the United States, 
XXIII, 870, and XXVIII, 175. 

For a list of references relating to 
applications of electricity, see Chapter 
XXVI, in this volume, entitled The Elec- 
trician. 

The meaning of the term "horse- 
power" and its application in practical 
mechanics is explained in XV, 
782-83; and it is still further 
noticed in XII, 211, and XV, 723. The 
signification of the term when used in 
connection with steam-engines is made 
clear in XXII, 494, 511. 

There are still other forces which in- 
fluence the action of machinery, and of 
whose manifestations and laws 
^^Me^chanics ^^^^ machinist cannot afford to 
be ignorant. There is Gravi- 
tation, for example, the influence of 
which must always be considered when 
any system of machinery is contem- 
plated. Study the article on this sub- 
ject, XI, 59. 

Then read of the discovery of the 
general law of gravitation, II, 660; of 
the various theories in relation to it, 
III, 56; of gravity in mechanics, XV, 
709, 737; and of the discoveries of Ar- 
chimedes concerning the centre of grav- 
ity, II, 332. 

Still pursuing this line of study, read 
of the laws and effects of adhesion, I, 
140; of cohesion, V, 50; and of elasticity, 
VII, 690. 

The laws of friction must now claim 
your attention, and these you will find 
very fully treated in IX, 683, and XV, 
709, 775. The action of friction in con- 



110 



GUIDE TO THE BKITANNICA 



nection with liquids is described in XII, 
506, and with gases in XVI, 641. 

The expenditure of energy in the over- 
coming of friction is explained in VIII, 
188; and the influence of lubricants in 
preventing friction receives attention 
in XV, 37. 

For an elaborate and very practical 
essay on Strength of Materials, see 
XXIX, 171-85. 

You are now ready for the article on 

Dynamics, or the science which treats 

of the action of force; and 

ynam cs ^^^^j, ^]^g^^ j^j, ^^xe article on 

Energy, or the power of doing work, 
VIII, 187. Then read the following: 

Force, VII, 502. 

Motion, XV, 683, 761. 

Momentum, XV, 684. 

Velocity, XV, 687, 779. 

Inertia, XV, 683, 756. 

Laws of Projectiles, XXII, 52o 

If you have followed this course of 
reading faithfully, you have acquired a 
comprehensive knowledge of those fun- 
damental principles of mechanics which 
govern the action and modify the effec- 



tiveness of all machinery. Much of the 
reading has been difficult ; it has re- 
quired hard study to master it all. But 
now you will understand what is meant 
when it is said that it is the well-in' 
formed mind no less than the skilful 
hand that makes the successful me- 
chanic. Knowledge never impairs one'? 
ability to work, but it adds to that 
ability. Of course, knowledge cannol 
supply the place of energy and strength. 
A good mind must be aided by strong 
arms ; a full memory must have the 
support of steady industry, or no worthy 
success can be attained. The best ar- 
tisan is he who possesses a thorough 
knowledge of the foundation principles 
of his calling, while at the same time 
he has the trained hand and eye and the 
obedient muscle which can result only 
from long and patient training and ex- 
perience, 

See now, for further references, the 
following chapters in this Guide : 

The Architect, The Builder, The Manu- 
facturer, The Electrician, The Inventor, 
and Two Courses of Reading in Physics. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
The Electrician 

"Every person has two educations, one which he receives from 
others, and one, more important, which he gives to himself." — Gibbon. 



Practical electricians will find in the 
supplementary article on Electricity, 
XXVI, 506-47, a very comprehensive 
presentation of the entire subject as it 
is now understood. This article, which 
comprises forty pages, is very fully illus- 
trated, and gives a complete outline of 
all the latest discoveries. It is invalua- 
ble to all persons who are in any way 
interested in this subject. 



Special 
Article 



The leading article on electricity, in 
the eighth volume of the Britannica, com- 
prises almost one hundred 
pages — equal in amount of 
matter to an ordinary 12mo 
volume of nearly five hundred pages. 
For the sake of non-scientific readers it 
is introduced by a brief history of the 
science, wherein mention is made of 
some of the more striking electrical dis- 



THE ELECTRICIAN 



111 



Historical 



coveries, and of the steps by which our 
knowledge of the subject has advanced 
to its present condition. 

FAMOUS ELECTRICIANS. 

In connection with the above-named 
articles, the following notices of men 
who have contributed to the advance- 
ment of the science will be read with 
interest: 

Dr. Gilbert (1540-1603), founder of the 
science, X, 528. 

Robert Boyle (1627-91), one of the ear- 
liest experimenters, IV, 166-67. 

Otto von Guericke (1602-86), XI, 218. 

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), XVII, 
449. 
Francis Hawksbee (died 
1712?), VIII, 5. 

Benjamin Franklin (1706-90), IX, 626. 

Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), V, 236. 

Coulomb (1736-1806), VI, 452. 

Galvani (1737-98), discoverer of gal- 
vanism, X, 44. 

Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the 
voltaic battery, XXIV, 304. 

Ampere (1775-1836), I, 656. 

Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851), 
VII, 80; VIII, 10; XXVIII, 275. 

Ohm (1781-1854), XVII, 759. 

Michael Faraday (1791-1867), IX, 27. 

Samuel F. B. Morse (1791-1872), XVI, 
874. 

Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-75), 
XXIV, 568.. 

Cyrus W. Field (1819-1892), XXVI, 637. 

Lord Kelvin (1824-), XXVII, 484. 

Thomas A. Edison (1847-), XXVI, 488. 

Nikola Tesla (1858-), XXIX, 256. 

SPECIAL SUBJECTS IN ELECTRICITY. 

Accumulators, I, 87. 
Armatures, XXV, 241; drum armature, 
XXVI, 531. 



Batteries: History of, VIII, 87-88; 
bichromate, XXVI, 543; Bunsen's, XXVI, 
542; copper oxide, XXVI, 543; 
^Sr'^ Daniell's, XXVI, 542; Grove's, 
XXVI, 542; Leclanche's, XXVI, 
543; silver chloride, XXVI, 543; Voltaic, 
XXVI, 541. 

Circuit, Magnetic, XXVI, 525. 

Condensers, XXVI, 516. 

Conductors and non-conductors, XXVI, 
507, 513, 519. 

Currents, XXVI, 517, 532. 

Diagometer, XXVI, 410. 

Dynamo electric-machines, XXVI, 529. 

Dynamos, XXVI, 532. 

Electric light in microscopy,XXVIII,91. 

Electric meters, VIII, 101. 

Electrification, XXVI, 506. 

Electrodynamic action, VIII, 10, 62, 
98. 

Electrolysis, or the decomposition of 
chemical substances by the agency of 
the electrical current, is dealt with in a 
comprehensive and scientific manner in 
VIII, 99-108. 

A supplementary article on the same 
subject (see XXVI, 547-49) gives an in- 
teresting account of the latest discover- 
ies and investigations in this branch of 
science. 

Electromagnets, VIII, 62; XXVI, 520, 
523. 

Electrometallurgy, VIII, 108. 

Electrometer, VIII, 110-16. 

Electromotive force, XXVI, 518. 

Electromotograph, XXVI, 549. 

Electrophorus, VIII, 95; XXVI, 509. 

Electroscopes, VIII, 111; diagometer, 
XXVI, 410. 

Fan-motor, XXVI, 616. 

Field-magnets, XXVI, 531. 

Fluoroscope, XXVI, 668. 

Galvanism, X, 44; XVII, 538. 

Galvanometers, X, 44; VIII, 38; XXVI, 
520. 



112 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Induction, Electromagnetic, XXVI,525. 
Induction-coils, XXVI, 527. 
Influence-machines, XXVI, 510. 
Insulators, XXVI. 507. 
Intensity, XXVI, 512. 
Magnetism, XV, 219; XXVI, 524; I, 
656. 
Ohm's law, VIII, 39-41. 
Poles of electromagnet, XXVI, 525. 
Potential, XXVI, 514. 
Resonance, XXVI, 535. 
Thermoelectric generator, XXVII, 75. 
Rontgen Rays, XXVI, 539; XXVIII, 616. 
Transformers, XXVI, 528. 
Volts and amperes, XXVI, 533. 
Voltmeter, XXIX, 458. 

ELECTEICAL APPLIANCES AND MACHINERY. 

Telegraph, XXIII, 119. 

Invention of the telegraph, see Guil- 
laume Amontons, I, 654; Samuel F. B. 
Morse, XVI, 874; Sir Charles Wheat- 
stone, XXIV, 568. 

Telegraphic devices, XXIX, 238. 

The pantelegraph, XXVIII, 326. 

The phonophore, XXVIII, 409. 
The Tele- Qccan cablcs and submarine 

graph 

telegraphy, XXII, 295, and XXVI, 
637 (Cyrus W. Field). 

Telegraphs in the United States, XXIX, 
239. 

Telegraphic statistics, XXIX, 240. 
Telautograph, XXIX, 238; writin'g tele- 
graph, XXIX, 607. 
The telephone, XXIII, 137. 
Long-distance telephones, XXIX, 243. 
Alexander Graham Bell, XXV, 415. 
Thomas A. Edison, XXVI, 488. 
Telephonic apparatus, XXIX, 244, 
Theatrophone, XXIX, 262. 

Electric motors, XXIII, 528, 
541. 

Latest improvements in elec- 
tric motors, XXVIII, 149. 

Electric railways, XX, 260; XXVIII, 547. 



Electric 
Motors 



Trolley systems for electric motors, 
XXIII, 526; XXVIII, 150. 

Trolley railways, XXIX, 319. 

Electric-car construction, XXVI, 58. 

Storage batteries, XXVI, 544. 

Tesla's oscillator, XXVIII, 300. 

Lightning arresters, XXVII, 598. 

Niagara power plant, XXVIII, 242. 

Electric elevators, XXVI, 550. 

Electric police and fire-alarm systems, 
XXVI, 645. 

Electric clocks, VI, 25; XXVI, 203. 

Electric alarm thermometer, XXV, 111. 

Electric piano, XXVIII, 420. 

Electric regulator, XXVIII, 571. 

Electric lighting, XIV, 637. 

The fluorescent lamp, XXVI, 668. 

Electric welding, XXIX, 517. 

Phonograph pi^Q^^Qgj.^ph, XXIII, 140, 146; 

XXVIII, 408. 

Kineto-phonograph, XXVII, 497. 

Gramophone, XXVII, 137. 

Kinetoscope, XXVII, 497. 

Vitascope, XXIX, 455. 

See Chapter XXVII, in this Guide, 
entitled The Inventor. 

MAGNETISM. 

Magnetism, XV, 219; XXVI, 524; I, 656. 
Terrestrial magnetism, XVI, 164. 
The compass, VI, 200. 
The com- rpj^g dipping-needle, XXVI, 



pass, etc. 



422. 



Variation of magnetic needle, XV, 220. 

Relation of magnetism to electricity, 
I, 656. 

Electromagnets, VIII, 62; XXVI, 520, 
523. 

Field-magnets, XXVI, 531. 

Magnetic iron ore, XIII, 293. 

Animal magnetism, XV, 279. 

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA. 

Lightning, XXIII, 351. 
Franklin's experiment with a kite, 
VIII, 7; Lightning conductor, XIV, 640. 



THE INVENTOR 



lis 



The cause of thunder, I, 100, 

Natural laws regulating the frequency 
of thunderstorms, XVI, 133. 

Aurora Borealis and Australis, or 
Northern and Southern Lights, HI, 
79-86. 

Electricity in minerals, XVI, 391. 



Connection of lightning with the au' 
rora, III, 79, 84. 

Sun-spots and magnetic disturbances, 
II, 688. 

Easy experiments to illustrate elec- 
trical laws, VIII, 15. 

Animal electricity, XXV, 194. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
The Inventor 

" Neither the naked hand nor the understanding, left to itself, can 
do much ; the work is accomplished by instruments and helps, of which 
the need is not less for the understanding than the hand." — Bacon. 



Rew persons have more to gain 
from self-culture than those who as- 
pire to success as invent- 
Knowiedge Qrs. It is true that now and 
Guesswork then somo wonderful discov- 
ery has been stumbled on by 
accident. But almost every invention 
that has been of any genuine import- 
ance to the world has been the result of 
long and patient study and unweary- 
ing toil. No amount of guesswork will 
produce a new machine possessing the 
qualities of novelty and utility requisite 
to a successful invention. The man 
who would bring such a machine into 
existence must devote his days to the 
acquisition of a thorough knowledge of 
the philosophical principles underlying 
its construction. He will need to under- 
stand the laws of mechanics ; he must 
be able to perform certain necessary 
mathematical processes ; and he must 
have an insight into the theory of ma- 
chinery. One inventor will probably 
find it necessary to study the laws of 
hydrostatics ; another will need to have 
a complete knowledge of chemistry, or 



Patents 



of mineralogy, or of botany; still an- 
other will add to all these branches of 
knowledge an understanding of the sci- 
ence of optics, or of acoustics, or it may 
be of meteorology, or of astronomy, or 
of navigation. 

PATENTS. 

Then, again, every inventor will find 
it worth while to learn what has been 
done by other inventors who 
have come before him. Turn 
to the chronological table on pages 
625-60, Volume V, of the Encyclopcedda 
Britannica, and notice the dates when 
the great inventions and discoveries 
which have revolutionized the world 
first made their appearance. Read next 
the History of Patents in XVIII, 359- 
63, and notice the patent laws which 
are now in force in all the principal 
countries, and particularly in the United 
States, XXVIII, 347. 

List of models in the U. S. Patent 
Office, XXVIII, 349. 

Business of the Patent Office, 1837-96, 
XXVIII, 351. 



114 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



New organization of the Patent Ojffice, 
XXVIII, 353. 

How to apply for a patent, XXVIII, 355. 

Fees for patents, XXVIII, 358. 

Trade-marks, XXIII, 530; XXVIII, 359. 

Registration of prints, etc., XXVIII, 
360. 

Forgery, IX, 364. 

GREAT INVENTORS. 

It will now be both profitable and in- 
teresting to read the biographies of the 
famous inventors of various times and 
countries. You might begin with the 
legendary story of Daedalus, the first 
great inventor, VI, 670; then take up 
subjects like the following: 

Roger Bacon, the first English scien- 
tist and inventor, III, 188; his magical 
inventions, XV, 208; his theory of optical 
glasses, XXIII, 146. 

Hans Lippershey, inventor of the tele- 
scope, X, 29 b"-30a. 

Galileo, inventor of the alcohol ther- 
mometer, XXIII, 308; X, 29 b. 

Evangelista Torricelli, inventor of the 
barometer, XXIII, 481-82. 

Otto von Guericke, inventor of the 
air-pump, XI, 218. 

John Harrison, inventor of the chro- 
nometer, and of the gridiron pendulum, 
XI, 442. 

John Dollond, inventor of the achro- 
matic telescope, VII, 299. 

Sir Humphry Davy, inventor of the 
safety-lamp, VI, 743; the Davy lamp, 
VI, 68. 

Denis Papin, inventor of the heat-en- 
gine, XVIII, 232, and XXII, 492; his im- 
provements on the air-pump, XIX, 258. 

James Watt, inventor of the steam- 
engine, XXIV, 433. 

John Fitch, IX, 236, and Robert Ful- 
ton, IX, 717 a" ' ; III, 468 (Henry Bell), 
inventors of the steamboat. 



Oliver Evans, improver of the steam- 
engine, VIII, 637, and XXII, 494. 

Benjamin Franklin, the first Ameri- 
can scientist, IX, 626; his electrical re- 
searches, VIII, 7. 

Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton- 
gin, VI, 429; XXIX, 544. 

Samuel F. B. Morse, XVI, 874, and Sir 
Charles Wheatstone, XXIV, 568, in- 
ventors of the electric telegraph. 
Wheatstone also invented the stereo- 
scope, XXII, 565. 

David Edward Hughes, inventor of 
the printing-telegraph, XXVII, 336. 

Sir Richard Arkwright, inventor of 
the spinning-frame, II, 474; VI, 435. 

James Hargreaves, inventor of the 
spinning-jenny, VI, 434; XVII, 614, 

Joseph Nicephore Niepce, XVII, 508; 
Louis J. M. Daguerre, VI, 671; and Wil- 
liam Henry Fox Talbot, XXIII, 32, in 
ventors of photography. 

Scott Archer, inventor of the collo- 
dion process in photography, XXIII, 
32a";XVIII, 837b-38. 

George Stephenson, improver of the 
locomotive, XXII, 564. 

Sir David Brewster, inventor of the 
kaleidoscope, and of the dioptric appa- 
ratus for lighthouses, IV, 246-47. 

Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcan- 
ized india-rubber, XXVII, 125. 

Robert Hare, inventor of the oxy- 
hydrogen blowpipe, XXVII, 231. 

Samuel Crompton, inventor of the 
spinning-mule, VI, 528. 

Samuel Colt, inventor of improved 
firearms, VI, 149. 

Richard J, Gatling, inventor of the 
Gatling gun, XXVII, 70. 

Henri de Girard, inventor of flax- 
spinning apparatus, X, 553. 

Sir William Siemens, inventor of the 
gas-engine, XXII, 42, 553. 



THE INVENTOR 



115 



Elias Howe, inventor of the sewing- 
machine, XXI, 754; XXVII, 330. 

Alvan Clark, telescope-maker, XXVI, 
183. 

Cyrus H. McCormick, inventor of the 
reaping-machine, XXVII, 659. 

Thomas A. Edison, inventor of many 
electrical machines and appliances, 
XXVI, 488. 

Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of 
the speaking-telephone, XXV, 415. 

Isaac Babbitt, inventor of Babbitt 
metal, XXV, 314. 

Sir Henry Bessemer, "Bessemer steel," 
XXV, 444. 

John Ericsson, inventor of the Moni- 
tor, XXVI, 585. 

Oliver Evans, inventor of the steam 
road-carriage, XXVI, 595. 

M. W. Baldwin, inventor of locomo- 
tives, XXV, 332. 

Thaddeus Fairbanks, inventor of plat- 
form scales, XXVI, 610. 

FAMOUS INVENTIONS. 

Gunpowder, II, 572; XI, 282; VIII, 705; 
first use of gunpowder, II, 573. 

Firearms, history of, II, 572; ancient 
guns, II, 573; gun-making, XI, 246; gun- 
nery, XI, 263; musket, II, 489; rifle, XI, 
249; naval cannon, XVII, 294. 

Printing-presses, XXVIII, 490; type- 
setting machines, XXIX, 343; XXIII, 
745; typewriters, XXIX, 346; XXIV, 733. 

Air-ships. See the article Aeronaut- 
ics, I, 167, and particularly the supple- 
mentary article on the same subject, 
XXV, 55, which gives an account of the 
latest experiments and discoveries. 
Read of flying-machines in the article 
Flight, IX, 277-84; and of balloons in I, 
169, and XIX, 598 a. 

Air-compressors, XXV, 106. 

Air-engines, I, 379. 

Anemometer, XXV, 190. 



Bells, XXV, 419. 

Brakes, IV, 191; railway brake, XX, 
259; XXV, 571. 

Buttons, IV, 532. 

Brushes and brooms, IV, 362. 

Calico-printing machines, IV, 606. 

Calculating machines, XXVI, 13. 

Candle-making, history of, IV, 708. 

Carriages, history of, V, 118. 

Clocks, VI, 13; electrical clocks, VI, 
25; XX VL 203. 

Coloring-machines, IV, 608. 

Compressed air for driving machinery, 
XXV, 106. 

Combs, VI, 159. 

Cutlery, VI, 646. 

Diving-bells, VII, 255. 

The eidoloscope, XXVI, 500. 

Elevators (lifts), XIV, 577; XXVI, 550. 

Ferris wheel, XXVI, 634. 

Fire-extinguishing apparatus, IX, 203, 
204, and XXVI, 649. 

Friction matches, invention and his- 
tory of, XV, 631. 

Furniture, IX, 745. 

Gramophone, XXVII, 137. 

Horseless wagons, XXV, 303. 

Kinetograph, XXVII, 497. 

Kineto-phonograph, and kinetoscope, 
XXVII, 497. 

Locks, XIV, 750. 

Lithography, XIV, 703. 

Photo-lithography, XVIII, 846. 

Microscope, invention of, XVI, 268. 

Milling-machine, XXVIII, 101. 

Mortising-machine, XXVIII, 147. 

Mirrors, XVI, 523; magic mirrors, 
XVI, 524. 

Pens, XVIII, 493. 

Pencils, XVIII, 500. 

Phonograph, invention of, XXIII, 140, 
146. 

Photography, XVIII, 834; Daguerre's 
invention of, VI, 671; Niepce's inven- 
tions, XVII, 508; electric-flash process, 



116 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



XXVIII, 411; recent photography, 
XXVIII, 410; astronomical photog- 
raphy, XXVIII, 416. 
Engraving, use of photography in, 

XXVI, 578. 
Pneumatic-delivery systems,XXV,106. 
Reaping-machines, I, 286; XXVII, 243. 
Rings, history of, XX, 574. 
Rope-making, XX, 865. 
Sewing-machines, XXI, 754. 
Slot-machines, XXIX, 102. 
Safety-lamp, VI, 68 a; XVI, 482. 
Screw-propellers. XXI, 862-64. 
Spectacles, XXII, 386, and XVI, 268. 
Steam-engine, invention of, XXIV, 

433; description of, XXII, 490. See also 

XXVII, 618; XXVIII, 26. 
Steamships, invention of. III, 468; IX, 

236; and XXII, 496; description of, XXI, 
862. See also XXVIII, 26. 

Stereoscopes, XXII, 565. 

Stocking-frame, XII, 312. 

Telegraph, history of, XXIII, 120. 
, Telephone, history of, XXIII, 137; de- 
scription of, 140. 

Telescope, history of,XXIII,146-50; de- 
scription of, 1 50-70. See also XXIX, 245. 

Twine-making, XX, 867. 

Vitascope, XXIX, 455. 

Watch-making, XXIV, 415. 

Water-tube boilers, XXV, 533. 

Water-meter, XXIX, 500. 

Weaving, XXIV, 489; ancient looms, 
XXIII, 224; spinning-jenny, II, 474, and 
VI, 434. 

Weighing-machines, XXIX, 515. 

This list might be continued to a very 
great length, but enough has been given 
to indicate the very complete and com- 
prehensive manner in which the subject 
of inventions is treated in the Britannica. 

SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 

There are certain special subjects with 
which almost every inventor needs to 



Heat 



have some acquaintance. One man will 
want to know all about the most recent 
discoveries in electricity; for he is seek- 
ing to invent some new electrical ap- 
pliance, or to make some improvement 
on former patents. He should consult 
the references given in Chapter XXVI, 
entitled The Electrician, in this Guide. 

Another inventor will find it neces- 
sary to investigate the phenomena and 
laws of Heat. Here are some refer- 
ences that may be helpful to him: 

Special article on Heat, XI, 495. 

Theory of the action of heat, XIX, 6. 
Heat as energy, VIII, 188. 
Law of latent heat, VIII, 641. 

Diffusion of heat, VII, 189. 

Conduction of heat, XX, 219. 

Convection of heat, XX, 219. 

Power of heat in mechanics, XV, 
783. 

Production of heat by different fuels, 
IX, 708. 

Heat of coal compared with that of 
oil, XVIII, 244. 

Mechanical equivalent of heat, VIII, 
189. 

Transformation of heat into force, 
XXIII, 303. 

A third inventor will want to under- 
stand the theory and construction of 
Machines, and perhaps also 
the general laws of mechan- 
ics. Let such a one consult 
the references given in Chapter XXIV, 
entitled The Mechanic, in this Guide. 

A fourth inventor is interested in 
such subjects as the air, gases, etc. He 
will find the Britannica full of informa- 
tion of just the sort that he is seeking. 
For example, in I, 379, there is a brief 
article on Air, with references to 

Atmosphere, III, 26. 

Meteorology, XVI, 119. 

Barometer, III, 329. 



Mechanical 
Laws 



THE ARCHITECT 



117 



Pneumatics, XIX, 252. 

Ventilation, XXIV, 171. 

This is followed by an interesting ac- 
count of the air-engine, I, 379; and this 
by an article describing the air-pump, 
I, 380. Then, by turning to the Index 
volume, one may find scores of minor 
references to various items of informa- 
tion relating to this particular subject. 

In short, there is no subject connected 



with the invention of machines, or of 
useful appliances of any kind, that does 
not receive somewhere in the Britannica 
the concise and comprehensive treat- 
ment which its importance demands. 

See the following chapters in this 
book : The Engineer, The Architect, The 
Builder, The Manufacturer, The Railroad 
Man, The Farmer, The Printer, The 
Miner. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
The Architect 

"... When we mean to build 
We first survey the plot, then draw the model.*' 

— 2 Henry IV. 

" If a man read little, he had need to have much cunning to seem to 
know that he doth not." — Lord Bacon. 



Definitions 



The work of the architect is closely 
connected with that of the builder. The 
end of building, merely as such, 
is convenience or use, irrespec- 
tive of appearance ; but the end of archi- 
tecture is so to arrange the plan, masses, 
and enrichments of a structure as to 
impart to it interest, beauty, grandeur, 
unity, power. Building is a trade ; 
architecture is an art. 

The Encyclopcedia Britannica is a mine 
of valuable information for the archi- 
tect. There is scarcely any question 
connected with the practical applica- 
tion of his art that does not receive 
notice and discussion somewhere within 
its pages. The history of archi- 
tecture is treated with special 
fulness. The leading article 
on this subject (in Volume II, pp. 334- 
419) is a very complete treatise embrac- 



Leading 
Article 



ing as much matter as is contained 
in an ordinary 12mo book of four 
hundred pages. It is enriched with 
eighteen full-page plates, besides nearly 
one hundred illustrations. Following 
it is a Glossary of Architectural Terms 
(especially classical and mediseval), fill- 
ing sixteen double-column pages. A 
supplementary article on American 
Architecture, XXV, 224, contains a 
number of designs and plans for mod- 
ern dwelling-houses, with much other 
valuable matter. 

The following are among the numer- 
ous subjects of interest which the archi- 
tect will find fully described or ex- 
plained in the Britannica. 

Prehistoric structures, II, 335; ancient 
remains at Carnac, V, 104; XXI, 57 a'; 
Cromlechs, VI, 528; XXI, 57-58; ancient 
stone circle at Stonehenge, XXII, 604; 



118 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



and at Avebury, III, 125; tumuli, III, 
342; lake-dwellings, XIV, 223; crannogs, 
VI, 489; dolmens, XXI, 57. 

Egyptian architecture, II, 336; pyra- 
mids, XX, 128; V, 505; sphinxes, VII, 
670; the Serapeum, XXI, 706; 
History of labyrinth, VII, 671; tombs, 
Architec- ^^jj^ g^^. ^^^ g^g. temples, 

VII, 673. 
Jewish architecture, II, 343; temple, 
of Solomon, XXIII, 182; of Zerubbabel, 

XXIII, 183; of Herod, XXIII, 184. 
Indian architecture, II, 345; Taj Ma- 
hal, I, 256. 

Assyrian architecture, II, 348. 

Persian architecture, II, 350; Persep- 
olis, XVIII, 569; Susa, XXII, 760. 

Grecian architecture, II, 352; remains 
at Mycenge, II, 303; XVII, 121; the Cary- 
atides, II, 357; Choragic monuments, II, 
860. 

Three orders of Grecian architecture 
(Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian), II, 353; 
Doric, II, 358; Ionic, II, 366; Corinthian, 
II, 364; IV, 628. 

Roman architecture, II, 362; the 
Pantheon, XX, 849; Colosseum, I, 680; 
dwellings of Pompeii, II, 368; XIX, 
459. 

Byzantine architecture, II, 369 b, 

XXIV, 160 b/ 

Pointed architecture, II, 369; Gothic 
architecture in England, II, 372; in 
France, II, 376; in Germany, II, 377; in 
Spain, II, 378; in Italy, II, 380. 

Modern Italian architecture, II, 382; 
St. Peter's at Rome, II, 383; III, 358. 

Modern English architecture, II, 387; 
St. Paul's Cathedral, XIV, 847; Inigo 
Jones, XIII, 748; Sir Christopher Wren, 
XXIV, 724; XVII, 453; Ely Cathedral, 
VIII, 144. 

Saracenic architecture, II, 389; 
mosques of Bagdad, III, 200; of Constan- 
tinople, VT, 271; great mosque at Da- 



mascus, VI, 696; at Mecca, XV, 679; the 
Alhambra, I, 503. 

Chinese architecture, II, 392. 

American Architecture, XXV, 224. 

Ancient American architecture, II, 394. 

Present position of architecture, II, 396. 

Architecture at the World's Colum- 
bian Exposition, XXIX, 595. 

Richard M. Hunt, XXVIl, 341. 

Henry Hobson Richardson, XXVIII, 
588. 

Richardson and his work, XXV, 228. 

Among the large number of special 

subjects relating to practice of this art, 

the following will be found 

^^s^ubjects ^^^^^ valuable and interesting: 

Abacus, I, 11. 

Abbeys, I, 17. 

Aisle," I, 382. 

Almshouses, II, 403. 

Apartment houses, XXV, 208c 

Apse, II, 187. 

Arcade, II, 285. 

Arch, II, 286. 

Architrave, II, 403. 

Baluster, II, 403. 

Baptistery, III, 304. 

Basilica, III, 355. 

Campanile, IV, 665. 

Caryatides, II, 357. 

Cathedral, V, 197. 

Chantry, II, 405. 

Cloister, VI, 35. 

Column, II, 406. 

Coping, IV, 414. 

Cornice, II, 406. 

Cupola, VII, 301. 

Dome, VII, 301. 

Dormer w^indow, II, 407. 

Entablature, II, 343. 

Fresco, IX, 676. 

Monastery, I, 17. 

Mosaic, XVI, 876. 

Moulding, IV, 435. 

Parapet, II, 412; IX, 871. 



THE BUILDER 



119 



ARCHITECTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS. 

St. Peter's at Rome, II, 383. 

St. Paul's in London, XIV, 847. 

Cologne Cathedral, VI, 136; 
fundings II' 377; XXI, 591 a.'" 

Milan Cathedral, XVI, 
302b"'-303;II, 381. 

Seville Cathedral, XXI, 742 a.' " 

Cordova Cathedral, with its Hall of 
1,000 columns, VI, 345 b"-346. 

York Minster, II, 374; (Cathedral of 
St. Peter), XXIV, 787. 

Cathedral of Geneva, X, 131. 

The Egyptian Temples, II, 340. 

The Parthenon, III, 6. 

The Atrium, III, 44. 

The Mausoleum, XV, 649 b" ' ; XI, 343. 

The Colosseum, I, 679. 

The Temple of Diana at Ephesus, 
VIII, 415-16. 

The Temple of the Sun at Baalbec, III, 
154. 



The Temple of the Sun at Palmyra, 
XVIII, 203. 

The Hindu temples, II, 347. 

Jain temple, I, 375. 

The Taj Mahal, I, 256. 

The Grand Mosque and the Kaaba of 
Mecca, XV, 679. 

The Alhambra, I, 503. 

The Bastile, III, 371. 

Lara Jongran, IV, 193. 

Leaning Tower of Pisa, IV, 666. 

Pyramid of Gizeh, XX, 130. 

The Escorial, VIII, 477. 

The Labyrinth, XIV, 180. 

The Capitol at Washington, XXV, 225. 

For additional references, see the fol- 
lowing chapter, entitled The Builder. 

BRIDGES, FORTIFICATIONS, ETC. 

For references to articles concerning 
the construction of bridges, fortifica- 
tions, etc., see Chapter XXX, entitled 
The Engineer, in this Guide. 



CHAPTER XXIX 



The Builder 

"In the elder days of art 

Builders wrought with greatest care 
Each minute and unseen part. 
For the gods see everywhere." 

— Longfellow. 



The art of building is in a certain 
sense supplementary to the art of archi- 
tecture. In its highest appli- 
cation it may very properly 
be Z2^\e6. practical architecture. 
Building, however, is fre- 
quently employed when the result is 
not architectural ; and in such case it is 
the exercise of labor to the accomplish- 
ment of a certain useful end, and can- 



Practical 
Architec 
ture 



not properly be styled an art. The suc- 
cessful builder ought to possess a scien- 
tific knowledge of carpentry, joinery, 
masonry, and all other trades connected 
with building; and he should have a 
practical understanding of the fitness, 
strength, durability, and resistance of 
all kinds of materials. The Encyclope- 
dia Britannica offers a vast amount of 
information on all these subjects; it is, 



120 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Mason-work 



in fact, a library of useful knowledge 
for any person engaged in the building 
trades. 

The special article on Building, IV, 
400-459, is in itself a complete treatise 
on this subject. Each of the various 
divisions of the builder's trade is con- 
sidered separately. 

Mason-work, IV, 418. 

Brick, history and manufacture of, IV, 
249; ancient bricks, XIX, 621, 638; enam- 
eled bricks, VIII, 169; glazed 
bricks in vrall-linings, XVII, 
41; brick as building material, IV, 401; 
strength of brick, XXIX, 171; XXII, 634; 
brick facings (Roman), XX, 827. 

Bricks and brick-making, XXV, 587, 
describes the most improved processes 
now in use in the United States. It will 
be seen that the introduction of ma- 
chinery has revolutionized the industry. 

Use of brick in combination with 
stone, II, 400. 

Use of steel in building, XXV, 229. 

Brick architecture in Germany, II, 378. 

Bricklaying, IV, 411. 

Mortar, XIV, 654; how mortar is made, 
IV, 411. 

Calcination of lime, XIII, 303. 

Quicklime, XXI, 175. 

Building-stone, IV, 401, 419, and XXV, 
638; strength of, XXIX, 171; XXII, 634. 

Granite, XI, 43; X, 205; sandstone, X, 
212. 

Limestone, X, 206. 

Marble, XV, 535; marble veneer, XVII, 
41. 

Stone cutting and dressing, XXIX, 166. 

Concrete, VI, '216, and IV, 405. 

Plaster-work, IV, 451. 

Cements, V, 285. 

Portland cement, IV, 411. 

Hydraulic cement, XIV, 654. 

Stone-pavings, IV, 423. 



Paving in bricks and tiles, IV, 417. 
Paving-tiles, XXIII, 416. 
Mason's tools, IV, 419. 
Scafeolding, IV, 409, 419. 
Chimneys and flues, IV, 417. 
Ventilation by chimneys, XXIV, 172. 
Chimney-pieces, IV, 423. 
Sewers and drains, IV, 417. 

Carpenter-work, IV, 426. 

Carpentry with the use of labor-saving 
machinery, XXVI, 70. 

Carpenter's tools, IV, 426. 

Flooring, IV, 404, 431, 441. 

Partitions, IV, 433. 

Timber, IV, 400; strength of, XXIX, 
171; VII, 708; and XXII, 634; shrinkage, 
IV, 434. 

Kinds of wood used for finish- 
ToT"" mg,IV,435a."' 

Mouldings, IV, 435. 

Sawing, XXI, 358; XI, 391; sawyer- 
work, IV, 426. 

Planing, XI, 391; XV, 155. 

Hanging doors, IV, 439. 

Windows, X, 594; IV, 441. 

Ventilation by windows, XXIV, 173. 

Roofer's Work, IV, 433, and VII, 301. 
Slate, XXII, 135; strength 

Eooflng ^^ ^^jj^ gg^. gi^tgj.,g ^Qj-k, 

IV, 448. 
Shingles, XXI, 361, and II, 416. 
Thatch, IV, 449. 
Copper, zinc, and tin roofs, IV, 451. 

Plumber's Work, IV, 449. 

Sanitary conveniences of modern 
houses, XXVIII, 669. 

Sanitary plumbing, XXVIII, 442. 

Radiators for indoor heating, XXVIII, 
530. 

Lead, XIV, 374; solder, XXII, 262. 

Lead-pipes and gutters, IV, 



Plumbing 



450. 



Water-pipes, XII, 508; XXVIII, 443. 



THE ENGINEER 



121 



Cesspools, tanks, and water-closets, 
IV, 418. 
House drainage, XXVIII, 443. 
Gas-fitting, IV, 456. 

Plasterer's Work, IV, 451. 

Painter's and Decorator's Work, IV, 
457. 

Mural decoration, XVII, 40. 
piasterine Stucco-work, XVII, 44, and 

Painting IV, 454. 

Paper-hangings, IV, 459. 
Japanese paper-hangings, XIII, 602. 
See also Pigments, XIX, 94. 
Body-color, XXV, 514. 

Glazier's Work, IV, 455. 

Glass, X, 576; window glass, 



Glazing 



X, 587; plate glass, X, 590. 



Putty, XX, 124. 



Lead-work, IV, 456. 

Stained glass, X, 596, 

Pavement lights, IV, 456. 

Many other articles of practical value 
to the builder will be suggested to him 
from time to time, and can be found by 
reference to the Index volume of the 
Britannica. 

The article on Building Associations, 
IV, 459, and especially that on Building 
AND Loan Associations in the United 
States, XXV, 635-38, are full of practical 
information, not only for the builders, 
but for all owners and prospective own- 
ers of houses. 

For a short list of famous buildings, 
see p. 119 of this Guide. 

See also the chapters entitled The 
Mechanic (Chapter XXIV) and The En- 
gineer (Chapter XXX). 



CHAPTER XXX 
The Engineer 

"Do as I have done- — persevere." — George Stephenson, 



Engineering — the art of designing 
and constructing works — embraces a 
very wide range of subjects, and the 
different departments into which the 
profession is divided do not admit of 
very strict definition. In this chapter 
it is proposed to indicate a few of the 
subjects in the Encyclopcedia Britannica 
which have relation to the work of the 
civil engineer. Among these subjects 
are the different branches of mathemat- 
ics, which the Guide has already men- 
tioned in the chapter on that subject- 
To these may be added the articles : 

Surveying, XXII, 731, and 

Geodesy, X, 146. 



Surveying 



Both of these, aside from the purely 
technical and mathematical portions of 
which they are largely com- 
posed, contain much matter 
of interest and practical value. See also 
Stadia Measurement, XXIX, 146. Of 
other articles there are many, but it is 
necessary here to name only a few as 
examples of the quality of instruction 
and information to be derived from the 
Britannica. 



Bridges, IV, 253-309, is a very com- 
prehensive article, with nu- 
merous diagrams and illustra- 
tions. A supplementary article on the 



Bridges 



122 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



same subject, XXV, 588, contains an 
alphabetical list of the principal bridges 
in the world, with descriptive notes on 
those which are of the most recent 
construction. Many of these famous 
bridges are described in separate arti- 
cles, of which the following are exam- 
ples: 

Brooklyn Bridge, XVII, 478. 

Forth Bridge, XX, 242. 

St. Louis Bridge, XXI, 194. 

Laws governing the erection of 
bridges, XXV, 592. 

Caissons (used in bridge building), IV, 
574. 

River engineering, XX, 586. 

River engineering on the Mississippi, 
XVI, 543; James B. Eads, XXVI, 477. 

Engineering at Hell Gate, XXVII, 268. 

Embankment, VIII, 146. 

Cantilever, XXVI, 50, and XXV, 591 
(Poughkeepsie Bridge). 

Aqueducts, II, 191; chiefly interesting 
on account of the history which it con- 
tains of ancient aqueducts. The mod- 
ern methods of constructing aqueducts 
and tunnels are fully described in XXV, 
217. See also 

Railway tunnels, XX, 241. 

Tunneling, XXIII, 662. 

St. Gotthard tunnel, XXIII, 664. 

Sutro tunnel, XVII, 377; XXIX, 207. 

Hoosac tunnel, XV, 620 a.' 

Viaducts, XXIX, 436. 

Waterworks, XXIV, 427, with chapters 
on reservoir dams, conveyance, purifica- 
tion, storage, and distribution. 
Waterworks of London, XIV, 
834. 
Of Paris, XVIII, 285. 
Of New York, XVII, 478. 
Of Glasgow, X, 572. 
Coffer-dams, VI, 104. 



Waterworks 



Canals 



Harbors 



Roads 



Canals, IV, 691-702, with diagrams 
and illustrations. 

History of canals and canal 
construction, XXVI, 40-46. 
Suez Canal, XXII, 653. 
Panama Canal, XVIII, 213. 
Nicaragua Canal, XXVIII, 243. 
M. de Lesseps, XXVII, 580. 
Harbors, XI, 406-16, with numerous 
diagrams. Supplementary article re- 
lating specially to the harbors 
and docks of the United States, 
XXVII, 225. 
United States Coast Survey, XXVI, 215. 
Docks, XI, 416-22. 

Roads, XX, 597; construction of roads, 
p. 597; stone pavements, p. 600; wood 

paving, p. 601 ; asphalt paving, 

p. 602. 
Telford road, XXIII, 170. 
Macadam, the Scotch road-maker, 

XX, 597-98. 

James Nasmyth, XXVIII, 172. 
Railways, see Chapter XL, entitled 
The Railroad Man, in this Guide. 

Lighthouses, XIV, 620. 

The Eddystone tower, p. 620. 

Other famous lighthouses, 
"P*' p. 621; modes of construction, 

houses ^ ' 

p. 622. 
Beacons and buoys, p. 632. 

Irrigation, XIII, 372; XXV, 99, and 
XXVII, 414. 
Sewerage, construction of sewers, 

XXI, 745. 

Sewerage of London, XIV, 835; of 
Paris, XVIII, 285. 

Fortifications, IX, 371-413, a compre- 
hensive treatise, illustrated with nu- 
merous diagrams and plates, 
^"catfons Especially interesting, even 
to non-scientific readers, is 
the history of improvements in perma- 



THE LABORER 



123 



nent fortifications, pp. 388-90, and the 
chapter on the fortification of capitals, 
p. 412. So also is the account of the 
siege of the citadel of Antwerp, IX, 
404, and of the defense of Dantzic, IX, 
406. 

Other valuable articles are such as 
the following: 
Miscei- Engineering Societies of the 

laneous XT. S., XXVI, 575. 

Societies of Engineers, XXII, 238. 
Amalgamated Society of Engineers, 
XXIII, 531. 



Naval Engineers, duties of, XVII, 302. 
Royal Engineers in the British army, 
II, 507. 
Strength of materials, XXII, 623. 
Eiffel tower, XXVI, 501. 
Gunnery, XI, 263. 
Artillery, II, 572. 
Heliography, XI, 564. 
Shipbuilding, XXI, 845. 

See also the chapters entitled The 
Builder (Chapter XXIX), The Seaman 
(Chapter XXXIX), and The Machinist 
(Chapter XXV), in this Guide. 



CHAPTER XXXi 

The Laborer 

" All true work is sacred ; in all true work, were it but true hand- 
labor, there is something of divineness." — Thomas Carlyle. 

" Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might." — Eeclesiastes, 



WHO are 

Laborers ? 



Nearly every chapter in this Guide 
is addressed to the laborer in one or 
other division of the world's 
industries. The man who 
works with his brain is no less 
a laborer than he who toils with his 
hands. Hence the teacher, the lawyer, 
the banker, are as truly laborers as the 
mechanic, the builder, the farmer, the 
worker on the roads, the employee of 
the mill or the factory. "The life of 
man in this world," says Samuel Smiles, 
"is for the most part a life of work. In 
the case of ordinary men, work may be 
regarded as their normal condition. 
Every man worth calling a man should 
be willing and able to work. The honest 
laboring man finds work necessary for 
his sustenance, but it is equally neces- 



sary for men of all conditions and in 
every relationship of life. . . . Labor 
is indeed the price set upon everything 
which is valuable. Nothing can be ac- 
complished without it." 

In the present chapter it is the pur- 
pose of the Guide to point out some of 
the many articles and other passages in 
the Encydopmdia Britannica that may 
be of general interest to all classes of 
workingmen, especially to those who 
labor with their hands. The history 
of labor is identical with the history 
of civilization, for without the 
History ouc the othcr could not exists 

of Labor 

Workingmen of the present 
day may learn much that is both in- 
teresting and instructive by studying 
the conditions of labor in former times 



124 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



and in other countries. The Britannica 
affords ample facilities for such study. 
See, for example, the following articles 
or parts of articles: 

Labor in early times, I, 262; XIV, 
166. 

Slavery, XXII, 137. 

Labor in England in the Middle Ages, 
XIV, 167. 

Day-laborers in the time of Queen 
Elizabeth, XIV, 169. 

Labor laws in Great Britain, XIV, 
171. 

The factory system, XXIX, 209. 

Apprenticeship, II, 185; IX, 667. 

Guilds, XI, 230; of London, XIV, 828. 

The following articles will be found 
of greater or less interest to the differ- 
ent classes of workingmen 

'tpnaT everywhere: 

Labor and Capital, XXIV, 54. 
Labor and Wages, XXIV, 326. 
Labor and Wealth, XXIV, 487. 
Labor and Socialism, XXII, 217, 223. 
Labor and Communism, VI, 193. 
The Sweating System, XXIX, 208. 

Capital, V, 64. 

Capital and Socialism, XXII, 218, 224. 

Theories concerning capital, XIX, 387. 

Wages, XXIV, 326; XIV, 166. 

Wages in the United States, XXIX, 464. 
Payment of wages, XVIII, 451. 
Lassalle's theory of wages, 
XIV, 321. 

Marx's theory of wages, XXII, 224. 

Enfranchisement of the working 
classes. XIX, 365. 

Progress of the working classes, 
XXIV. 



Wages 



Legal relations of workingmen and 
employers, XIV, 171; XXVI, 571. 

Mechanics' Institutes, III, 676. 

Industrial condition of women, XXVII, 
384. 

Trade guilds and wages, XXIV, 331. 

Unions of workingmen, XXIII, 530. 

American Workingmen's Or- 
organ- ganizatious, XXVII, 526. 
izations Trade Unions, XXIII, 530. 



Labor 



American Federation of Labor, XXV, 
159. 

Knights of Labor, XXVII, 526. 

Ancient Order of United Workmen, 
XXV, 183. 

Trade Unions in England, II, 186. 

Workingmen's International Associa- 
tion, XIII, 195. 

Strikes, XXIII, 531. 

Recent great strikes in the United 
States, XXIX, 371. 

Boycotting, XXV, 563. 

Cooperation, VI, 300. 

Mutual Benefit Societies in the United 
States, XXV, 424. 

Mutual Benefit Orders, IX, 686. 

Building and Loan Associations, XXV, 
635. 

Agricultural cooperation, I, 369. 

Farmers' Organizations, XXVI, 618. 

International Typographical Union, 
XXVII, 526. 

American Railway Union, XXVII, 529; 
XXIX, 372. 

Labor Parties in the United States, 
XXVII, 529. 

United Mine-workers of America, 
XXIX, 371. 

Coxey's "Commonweal Army," XXIX, 
375. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
The Faemer 

" Life in the country is full of practical teachings, which richer folk 
are apt sedulously to deny to their children." — A Sussex Idyl. 

"Compare the state of that man, such as he would be without books, 
with what that man may be with books." — Lord Houghton, 



Faemer A and Farmer B are neigh- 
bors. Their lands join, and each has 
the same number of acres. 
Viurauou T^ we^ty years ago, when they 
entered upon these lands, 
they seemed to be on an equal footing 
in every way. It would have puzzled 
an expert to tell which of the farms had 
the better soil, or which was the most 
favorably situated for the purposes of 
agriculture. Both men were industri- 
ous, although everybody said that 
Farmer B was the harder worker of the 
two. Yet, from the very start, Farmer 
A had always the better success. His 
crops were better, the products of his 
farm were of a finer quality, he had 
fewer losses and fewer expenses, and, in 
short, everything prospered with him. 
But Farmer B, in spite of all his indus- 
try, fell constantly behind. His lands 
became less and less fertile every year. 
His crops failed, his stock died, every 
enterprise seemed to end in disappoint- 
ment or disaster. 

How can we account for the difference 

in the fortunes of these two men ? We 

cannot explain it by saying 

^^^ . that one was born to good 

Educated ° 

Farmer luck, and the other to mis- 
fortune. It is to be explained 
in this way : Farmer A spared no pains 
to acquire a thorough knowledge of his 
calling. He was a reader of books, and 
through them he availed himself of the 
experience of others in every depart- 



ment of agriculture. On the other hand, 
Farmer B placed his entire dependence 
upon industry alone ; and in the con- 
duct of his business he had only his 
own narrow experience to guide him. 

The day of guesswork in farming has 
passed. In every detail of the farmer's 
calling knowledge counts for gain. Other 
things being equal, the land-worker who 
keeps abreast of the times has an im- 
mense advantage over him who is con- 
tent to plod along in the footsteps of 
his ancestors. 

To the progressive farmer, the Ency- 
clopcedia Britannica is a mine of useful 
knowledge. Containing information of 
the most thorough and trustworthy kind 
concerning every department of his 
business, it proves itself to be a ready 
helper and adviser on all occasions. 

The article on Agriculture in the 
United States, XXV, 89-101, is the work 
of Hon. J. Sterling Morton, ex-Secretary 
of the Department of Agriculture, and 
of Charles W. Dabney, Jr., both of whom 
rank among the highest living authori- 
ties on this subject. It is an article of 
great practical value, giving just that 
kind of information which every intel- 
ligent farmer in this country wishes to 
have. The historical portion is partic- 
ularly interesting; while the statistics 
relative to United States farms present 
many facts that are worth knowing. 
The sections on Farm Products, Crops, 
Fibers, Tobacco, Truck-Farms, Market- 

(125) 



126 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Gardens, Sugar, Orchard Products, Vine- 
yards, and Minor Crops, pp. 91-96, con- 
tain much material for thought, and are 
full of good suggestions. 

The general article on Agriculture, 
I, 259-370, is a comprehensive treatise, 
covering 112 pages, in which 
^IrTaenerai ^vcrj farmer will find much 
that is both interesting and 
profitable. Although it may be said to 
present the subject from an English 
point of view, it is nevertheless replete 
with that sort of information which 
farmers everywhere appreciate. To the 
curious farmer, who would like to know 
how the work of his craft was done in 
olden times, the chapter on Ancient 
Husbandry, I, 259-64, will be full of in- 
terest. The relative advantages of 
" Small Farming " and " Large Farming " 
are discussed in I, 364, and XIV, 268. 
Truck-farming in the United States is 
described in XXV, 94; and this introduces 
us to a highly interesting article on 
Land, its ownership, distribution, etc., 
XIV, 260-71. 

An article on Homesteads, XII, 125, 
contains complete information con- 
cerning the Homestead Law 
in the United States, and the 
preemption of clams on Government 
lands, XII, 126 a." Still later facts re- 
lating to the same subject are given 
in the article on Public Lands of the 
United States, XXVIII, 514. The sec- 
tion on the Surveys of Public Lands in 
the United States, XXIX, 366, pre- 
sents much valuable information. The 
farm-seeker who finds it necessary 
to lease instead of buying or other- 
wise becoming the owner of his farm 
will obtain many practical hints from 
the article on Landlord and Ten- 
ant, XIV, 273-78. He will be inter- 
ested, too, in reading the chapter on 



Landowning 



Buildings 



Tenure of Land, I, 361, and the article 
on Rent, XX, 414. The landowner will 
also find many things of interest in 
these articles, and he will want to read 
still more of the history of landowner- 
ship in Agrarian Laws, I, 256 a." 

The chapter on Farm Buildings, I, 274, 
will save many a farmer much more 
than the cost of an Encyclo- 
pcedia; that on Fences, I, 275, is 
also full of valuable suggestions. Not 
many farmers have to build bridges, but 
such as do will find something of inter- 
est to them in XXV, 588. The building 
of fruit-houses is described in XII, 227 a'", 
and of plant-houses in XII, 225 a.'" 

Next to the subject of buildings, that 
of machines, implements, and tools is of 
importance to every farmer, 
impie- These are described in detail 
ments. ^ud at length in the chapter 
on Machines and Implements 
of Husbandry, I, 276-92. See also 
Harvesting Machinery, XXVII, 243. 
Corn-harvesters, XXVII, 247. 
American plows, XXVIII, 442. 
American threshing-machinery,XXIX, 
279. 
Improved straw-stacker, XXIX, 281. 
The successful farmer must also know 
something about soils. He will find this 
subject treated in a general 
way in I, 273; the chemistry 
of soils is noticed in XIV, 570 a'; the 
soils best suited for gardens are de- 
scribed in XII, 221, 237; while the man- 
ner in which different kinds of soils 
were originally produced is described 
briefly in X, 236. 

Closely connected with the latter sub- 
ject is that of fertilizers. Read what is 
said of Fertilizers, I, 286; of 
Manures, I, 308, and XII, 238; 
of the value of Bone Manure, I, 310; of 
Lime, I, 312; and of Artificial Manures, 



Soils 



Fertilizers 



THE FARMER 



127 



Irrigation 



Crops 



I, 314. Then turn to the special and 
very valuable article on Manures, XV, 
513-19, and to that on Guano, XI, 206. 

In some parts of the country irrigation 
is necessary to the production of crops. 
Farmers in such sections will 
find it profitable to read the 
general article on Irrigation, XIII, 372, 
and perhaps also that which is said 
about irrigation by sewage, XXI, 746. 
The latest facts regarding irrigation in 
the United States are given in XXV, 99, 
and XXVII, 414. It will also be inter- 
esting to read about the curious meth- 
ods of irrigation practiced in other 
countries. For instance, the methods 
pursued in Egypt, VII, 613; in Arabia, 

II, 212 b'; in India, XII, 792; and in 
Spain, XXII, 313. 

After soils, and the preparation of the 
ground !or crops (see I, 292-303), we 
come to the crops themselves. 
The supplementary article on 
Wheat in America, XXIX, 534, is partic- 
ularly valuable. A long and valuable 
article on Wheat, XXIV, 560, is also 
worthy of every farmer's attention. In- 
dian corn is described under the head 
of Maize, XV, 311. An interesting his- 
tory of the potato is given in the general 
article Potato, XIX, 611; while specific 
directions as to its culture are to be 
found in XII, 298 b. The diseases of the 
potato are described in XIX, 613; while 
the history and nature of the potato- 
bug are given in VI, 121 b. Passing now 
to other grains and vegetables, you will 
find each treated in its appropriate 
place; for example: Barley, III, 324, 
and XXV, 362; Oats, XVII, 715; Flax, 
IX, 256; XXV, 93, 94; Hemp, XI, 577; 
XXV, 94. 

The special article on Cotton, VI, 427, 
is interesting and exhaustive. The sec- 
tions on Cotton in the United States, 



XXV, 93; XXIX, 364, present the very 
latest statistics concerning this industry. 
For further information concerning the 
growth of cotton in the United States, 
see X, 391, and XXIII, 880. See also 
the reference to textile fabrics in this 
Guide, in Chapter XXIII, entitled The 
Manufactu7'er. 

Growers of rice will turn to XX, 553; 
and they will also find pleasure in read- 
ing how this grain is cultivated in vari- 
ous countries — in India, III, 214, 490; in 
Japan, XIII, 583; in Java, XIII, 613; and 
in Madagascar, XV, 172. 

The culture of tobacco in the United 
States receives due attention in XXV, 
94, in XIV, 45; and in XXIV, 279. 

Interesting facts concerning the his- 
tory and nature of the plant are given 
in the general article on Tobacco, XXIII, 
451. 

Other farm products are the subjects 
of valuable articles. 

Broom-corn, XXV, 609. 

Buckwheat, XXV, 631. 

The farmer wh® cares for statistics 
relative to the production of Farm 
Products will find a great deal 
of trustworthy information in 
the article on Agriculture, XXV, 89, as 
well as in the chapter on Agriculture in 
the United States, XXIII, 878-82. 

Has the farmer any enemies? Yes, 
many of them; and the successful agri- 
culturist will arm himself 
against them by becoming ac- 
quainted with their character and hab- 
its. The article on Insecticide, XXVII, 
391-92, will be found to be of great 
practical value. So also will the ar- 
ticles on the Army Worm, XXV, 247; 
on the Weevil, XXIV, 504; on the In- 
sects, etc., injurious to Wheat, XXIV, 
564-566; and on the various practical 



statistics 



Insects 



128 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



recipes for insecticides, XXVII, 391, If 
you would recognize a friend, read also 
what is said of the Ichneumon Fly, XII, 
665. It might be well too, to read about 
the Trichina, XXIV, 223; about Rusts, 
XXVIII, 635; and about Smuts, XXIX, 
111. Vine-growers will find several 
matters of practical interest in the sec- 
tion relating to the diseases of the vine, 
XXIV, 256. 

Various other topics claim the atten- 
tion of the successful farmer. If he is 
interested in the production 
""iflfr of hay, he will want to read 

neous •' ' 

the articles on Grasses, XI, 48, 
and XXVI, 678. If he cares for honey, 
he will see what is said about Bees, III, 
417, 426; XII, 610; XIII, 147; about apia- 
rian products, XXV, 99; about Honey, 
XII, 138-142; about Wax, XXIV, 485; 
and about the Bee Industry, XXV, 405-6. 
If he has more apples than he can eat 
or sell, he will learn all about Cider, V, 
677; if he owns chickens or ducks or 
geese, he will want to know how to 
make them profitable, and will read the 
article on Poultry, XIX, 664. In fact, 
the number of subjects of this kind is 
so large that it is impossible here to 
enumerate them. 

And now, Mr. Farmer, are you a gar- 
dener or a fruit-grower? Turn to the 
next two chapters in this 
book, and notice the refer- 
ences which are given there. 
You may not be a stock-raiser, in the 
strict meaning of the word; but we 
know that you want to have the best 
breeds of horses and cattle and swine, 
and in the care of them to avail yourself 
of the knowledge and experience of 
others. And so we refer you to Chapter 
XXXVI, entitled The Stock-Raiser and 
Dairyman, in this Guide. In that chap- 
ter you will also find numerous refer- 



Further 

References 



Farming in 
Other 
Countries 



ences to articles relating to milk, butter, 
cheese, etc., and the most approved and 
profitable methods of conducting a 
dairy. 

Are you interested in what farmers 
are doing in other countries? Do you 
want to know what kinds of 
soil they have, what grains 
they raise, what implements 
they use? Do you care to 
learn about their modes of living, or 
about the profits which they derive from 
their labor? You will find just such in- 
formation in the Britannica. Look un- 
der the head of the country which you 
have in mind. For example, you will find 

Agriculture in Austria, III, 103, 

Agriculture in Afghanistan, I, 209. 

Agriculture in Arabia, II, 212. 

And so with almost every country in 
the world. 

Are you interested in the present trend 
of American agriculture? Of course 
you are. See what ex-Secretary Morton 
says on that subject in XXV, 100. Read 
also the brief account which follows on 
p. 101, of the Department of Agriculture 
at Washington. 

Are you interested in cooperation 
with others of your calling? Read what 
is said about Farmers' Organi- 
zations, XXVI, 618; about agri- 
cultural cooperation, I, 369; about co- 
operation in general, VI, 300; and about 
communities in Europe and America, 
VI, 194-95. See also the article on 
World's Fairs, XXIX, 594, 

Nearly all enlightened nations recog- 
nize the importance of scientific in- 
struction in the practice of 
The Educa- agriculture. In Europe there 

tion of 1 • 1 j^ 1 1 

Farmers v^cre Several agricultural col- 
leges nearly a hundred years 
ago. In Germany scores of institutions 
are in successful operation wherein the 



Cooperation 



THE GARDENER 



129 



sons of farmers are instructed in the 
best methods of cultivating the soil. 
There are also many such schools in 
Belgium, France, and England, and the 
result is that the lands in those coun- 
tries produce almost double the amount 
per acre raised before their establish- 
ment. In the United States, where less 
attention has been paid to this branch 
of education, the annual crops almost 
everywhere are less per acre. It was 
not until 1862 that the first national 
movement was made towards the estab- 
lishment of Agricultural Colleges. An 
article in the XXV, 86, gives a complete 
history and description of the farmers' 
colleges now in operation in this coun- 
try. Closely connected with these col- 
leges are the agricultural experiment 
stations, of which one or more have 
been established in every state. These 
stations are intended to promote, under 
Government auspices, the methodical 
study of farmers' problems, and they 
are very fully described in XXV, 87-89. 
The relations of the Government and 
its agricultural stations to the farmer 
are very aptly stated in XXV, 100. The 
section on the Education of Farmers, I, 



Conclusion 



408, is well worth reading in this connec- 
tion, presenting as it does some valuable 
thoughts from an English point of view. 
As to the manner in which many Amer- 
ican farmers try to keep abreast of the 
times, see Farmers' Institutes, XXVI, 618. 

Here, then, we have indicated enough 
reading to occupy your leisure moments 
for many a day. And as you 
pursue the study of these sub- 
jects, other topics will naturally fall un- 
der your eye, and you will see how inex- 
haustible is the fund of knowledge before 
you. Can anyone now say that the 
farmer who has made this knowledge 
his own will not be vastly more success- 
ful in all the departments of his calling 
than his neighbor whose information is 
limited to that which he has acquired 
through personal experience alone ? The 
Encyclopcedia Britannica is a farmer's 
library in itself, covering every division 
of agricultural lore ; and its articles, be- 
ing the work of specialists, are not only 
complete and comprehensive, but in the 
highest degree trustworthy and authori- 
tative. 

See also Chapter XXXV in this Guide, 
entitled The Woodsman. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

The Gardenee 

" He that lives in his own fields and the habitation which God hath 
given him enjoys true peace. Nothing should hinder him from the 
pleasure of books." — Atitonio de Guevara, 1540. 



As A matter of course the gardener's 
interests are, to a large extent, identical 
with those of the farmer. Every success- 
ful gardener must know a good deal 
about soils, fertilizers, the preparation 
of the ground, farm implements and 

9 



machinery, and many other subjects 
connected with that larger branch of 
agriculture generally called farming. 
And so, Mr. Gardener, if you have come 
to that storehouse of knowledge, the 
Encyclopcedia Britannica for information 



130 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



which will help you in the practice of 
your calling, we would advise you to 
turn to some of the articles which we 
have just named in the chapter for the 
guidance of the farmer. When you 
have obtained such information as you 
wish upon the subjects therein men- 
tioned, you will be all the more ready 
to profit by the courses of reading and 
reference which follow. 

The general article on Horticulture, 
XII, 215-302, will of course claim your 
first attention. This is a 
° Ge^neraf ^^ ^^^^ Comprehensive chapter, 
and contains as much matter 
as an ordinary 12mo volume of 350 
pages. Some portions of the article 
may be of greater value to you than 
others. Turn to the Index on page 308, 
and see what the article contains that 
is of special interest to you. 

The chapter on the Formation and 
Preparation of the Garden, XII, 221, 
contains some valuable practical hints. 
That on Garden Materials and Appli- 
ances (including Manures and Tools 
and Implements), XII, 237-40; that on 
Plant Houses, XII, 225-27; that on 
Fruit Houses, XII, 227-30; and that 
on Propagation, XII, 240-45, will also 
be found rich in suggestiveness and in 
direct information. 

Is yours a flower garden? Read the 
chapter on the Flowers, XII, 253-78; 
and the chapter on Pruning, 
XII, 247-53. The article on 
Floriculture, XXVI, 663-64, 
contains a number of interesting statis- 
tics concerning the progress of this in- 
dustry in the United States, and will be 
read with profit by every florist. 

The following articles and parts of 
articles are worthy of the attention of 
every gardener and of every lover of 
flowers. 



Tbe Flower 
Garden 



History of the first attempts at the 
classification of plants, IV, 70 a." 

The story of Linnaeus, XIV, 677, and 
his classification of plants, IV, 70 b.' 

The account of Robert Brown, the 
originator of the natural sj^stem of 
classification, IV, 71 b", and IV, 347 a. 

The chapter on Structural Elements 
of Plants, IV, 73. 

The special article on the Rose, XX, 
873. 

Then there are innumerable special 
articles on the different kinds of flowers, 
all of which may be found by reference 
to the Index volume. Among these 
articles it may not be amiss to call at- 
tention to the following: 

Lily, XIV, 649. 

Fuchsia, IX, 707. 

Gladiolus, X, 564. 

Geranium and Pelargonium, X, 395. 

Convolvulus, XXVI, 273. 

Dahlia, VI, 673. 

Nasturtium, XVII, 245. 

Orchids, XVII, 839. 

Pansy, XVIII, 218. 

Phlox, XVIII, 811. 

Honeysuckle, XII, 143. 

Hollyhock, XII, 106. 

Hyacinth, XII, 435. 

Mignonette, XVI, 301. 

Rhododendron, XX, 541-42. 

Tulip, XXIII, 643. 

But it is unnecessary to name more. 
These are mentioned only as examples 
of many articles which lovers of flowers 
will take pleasure in finding and reading. 

There are articles on wild flowers, 
too, such as Goldenrod, XXVII, 119; Ra- 
nunculus (buttercup), XX, 
284; Violet, XXIV, 259; Daisy, 
VI, 681; Lily of the Valley, XXVII, 
599-600; Dandelion, VI, 706; and scores 
of others. And in the general article 
on Botany, IV, 70, their structure, hab- 



Wild Flowers 



THE FRUIT-GROWER 



131 



its, and growth are treated and de- 
scribed from a scientific standpoint. 

If you are interested in Landscape- 
Gardening, see the article on that sub- 
ject in XXVII, 541-42 ; also the 
'"aSW article on Lawns, XII, 254, 
and the articles on National 
Parks, National Military Parks, and 
Natural Parks, XXVIII, 334, 335, and the 
cross-references there given. See also 
William Kent, XIV, 42; and Andrew 
Jackson Downing, XXVI, 444. 

Some curious historical facts in rela- 
tion to the subject may be found by 
reference to the article Labyrinth, XIV, 
180. The article Arboriculture, II, 
275, will also supply some useful hints; 
and the account of the Royal Botanical 
Gardens at Kew, XII, 156, and XXVII, 
492, will be found interesting. 

The Vegetable Garden is described 

in XII, 289; and the different kinds of 

vegetables profitable for cul- 

^^f . .., tivation are noticed, each in 

Vegetable . , T,,r 

Garden its appropriate place. Mar- 
ket gardening in the United 
States is the subject of a comprehensive 



paragraph in XXV, 95. See what is said 
about the Potato, XIX, 611, and I, 323, 
about its diseases, XIX, 613, and about 
its most destructive enemy, VI, 121. 

The manner of raising other root 
crops, such as turnips, mangel-wurzels, 
carrots, parsnips, cabbages, kohlrabi, 
etc., is described with some minuteness 
in the chapter beginning on I, 323. All 
the common vegetables raised in the 
gardens receive notice in the Britannica. 
Special articles also are given on the 
cultivation of these vegetables in the 
United States, as : 

Beet, XXV, 409 ; Beet Sugar, XXV, 
410, etc. 

But for the latest information, see 
the special article on Agriculture in 
the United States, XXV, 89-101. 

Market-Gardens, XXV, 95. 

Minor Crops, XXV, 96. 

Truck-farming in the United States, 
XXIX, 325. 

Truck farms, XXV, 94. 

See also the references in Chapters 
XXXIV and XXXV, entitled The Fruit- 
Grower and The Woodsman. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
The Fruit-Grower 

" They shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree." 

— Micah, 

" You only, O books, are liberal and independent. You give to all 
who ask, and enfranchise all who serve you assiduously. Truly, you 
are the ears filled with most palatable grains — fruitful olives, vines of 
Engaddi, fig-trees knowing no sterility ; burning lamps to be ever held 
in the hand." — Richard de Bury. 



For the fruit-grower, be he farmer or 
gardener, there is to be found in the 
Britannica a great variety of 
practical, useful information. 
As to soils, fertilizers, irriga- 
tion, and other subjects of general inter- 



The 
Orchard 



est to all cultivators of the ground, it 
may be well to consult the references 
already given in Chapter XXXII, for The 
Farmer. In the first volume of the 
Britannica, page 341, there is a short 
chapter on Orchard Culture which will 



132 



GUIDE TO THE BRITaNNICA 



repay the reading. Of still greater 
practical interest is a chapter in XXV, 

95, on Orchard Products of the United 
States. An extensive list of standard 
Fruit Tkees, with descriptions of the 
best varieties, may be found in XII, 278, 
and should be marked for ready refer- 
ence. Further descriptions of fruit and 
fruit trees are presented in special short 
articles under appropriate headings, for 
example: 

Apple, 11, 184; the culture of apples 
for cider, V, 677. 

Apricot, II, 186. 

Peach, XVIII, 453; the peach-house, 
XII, 228; peaches in the United States, 
XXVIII, 368. 

Pear, XVIII, 456; XXVIII, 368. 

Cherry, XII, 280, and V, 509. 

Plum, XIX, 242. 

Prune, XIX, 242. 

Quince, XX, 188. 

The article on Strawberry, XXII, 621, 
XII, 287 a'", is interesting and valuable. 
So also are those on other 
small fruits: 

Raspberry, XII. 286. 

Cranberry, VI, 483, and XII, 280. 

Whortleberry, XXIV, 587. 

Huckleberry, XXVII, 333-34. 

Bilberry, XXV, 473. 

Blueberry, XXV, 510. 

Currants, VI, 631, and XII, 280. 

Gooseberry, X, 693. 

The culture of grapes receives the at- 
tention which its importance deserves. 
See the practical chapters on 
Vineyards, XII, 287, and that 
on Vineyards in the United States, XXV, 

96. See, too, Viticulture, XXIX, 454 ; also 
the special article on the Vine, XXIV, 
254. The manufacture of wine from 
grapes is described fully in XXIV, 634. 

The wines of different localities are 
referred to elsewhere, as: 



Small 
Fruits 



Grapes 



Fruit 
Houses 



Canary wine, IV, 703. 

Catawba, V, 191. Maderia, XV, 179. 

Tokay, XXIII, 460. 

Wilrtemberg, XXIV, 736 b. 

Fruit-houses, for the storing of the 
products of garden and orchard, are de- 
scribed at length in XII, 232. 
The entire article on Horti- 
culture, XI I, 215-308, is of 
value to the fruit-grower, and should be 
read and frequently consulted. 

See also the account of the societies 
that have been formed for the promo- 
tion of horticulture, XXII, 237. 

Tropical fruits are noticed, and de- 
scribed at length. 

Some of the best known are: 
%?uus' The date-palm, VI, 731. 

The fig-tree, IX, 135; IV, 109. 

Banana, III, 265. 

Olive, XVII, 783; III, 52. 

Bread-fruit, IV, 216. 

Lemon, XIV, 437. 

Orange, XVII, 834. 

Pine-apple, XIX, 114. 

Pomegranate, XIX, 456. 

Other articles which commend them- 
selves not only to fruit-growers, but also 
to large numbers of gardeners and farm- 
ers, are the following: 

Grafting, XII, 217, 241. 
Budding, XII, 242; XX, 435. 
Pruning, XII, 218, 247. 

Garden Trees, XII, 268. 

Fungicides, XXVII, 47-48. 

Mildew, XVI, 306. 

Diseases of Vines, XXIV, 256. 

The Canning Industry, XXVI, 48. 

In Chapter XXXV, entitled The Woods- 
men, in this Guide, the fruit-grower can 
find references to many other articles 
on trees, their culture, propagation, and 
uses. Many of these articles, if he will 
take the pains to consult them, may 
prove to be of genuine value to him. 



Care of 
Trees 



CHAPTER XXXV 



The Woodsman 

" Love of trees and plants is safe. You do not run risks in your 
afEections." — Alexander Smith. 

" The love of knowledge comes with reading, and grows upon it." 

— Henry Ward Beecher. 



In this chapter the word woodsman 
will be used in a broad and somewhat 
unusual sense. It will include every- 
one who is in any way actively inter- 
ested in trees, especially the trees of the 
forest: First, the man who regards 
trees only as objects of trade and profit, 
and views them always from an eco- 
nomical standpoint, caring for them 
only so far as they are of practical use 
to mankind ; second, those who love 
trees for their beauty, their fragrance, 
their grateful shade, their friendship ; 
and third, those who take pleasure in 
studying them in their scientific aspects, 
observing their modes of growth and 
their influence upon climate, soil, and 
various forms of vegetable and animal 
life. For all these "woodsmen" the 
Encyclopcedia Britannica has a variety 
of useful, entertaining, and trustworthy 
information. 

As an introduction to the study of 
trees, read the article on Forestry, 
XXVII, 5. Then turn to the very compre- 
hensive article. Forests, Forest Admin- 
istration, IX, 349-361, and notice the 
practical character of the information 
there given. After this, read of the 
Forests of the United States, XXIII, 863- 
66. Another article of much value is 
that on Arboriculture, II, 275-84. This, 
of course, relates especially to the grow- 
ing of trees as one branch of agriculture. 
Read particularly the section relating to 
the culture of trees, II, 276, and that on 



Lumbering 



timber trees, IX, 356-58. Valuable prac- 
tical suggestions are also given with 
relation to plantations of forest trees, 
II, 282 a.' For an account of the tim- 
bered region of the United States, see 
XXVIII, 430; IV, 623; XXIII, 864-65. For 
the forests of Canada, see IV, 683. The 
climatic influences of forests are dis- 
cussed in VI, 5. 

Of special interest to lumbermen is ' 
the article on Sawmills, XXI, 359. An , 
account of the lumber trade in 
the United States is given in 
XXIII, 864. The trade in Michigan re- 
ceives notice in XVI, 247, and that of 
Canada, in IV, 683. The uses of wood as 
building material are described in IV, 
400; its strength, VII, 708, and XXII, 
634; its value as fuel, IX, 709. 

II. USEFUL TREES. 

It is, of course, impossible in this 
chapter to name all the articles in the 
Britannica that have reference to indi- 
vidual forest trees. It may not be 
amiss, however, to direct special atten- 
tion to the following: 

Oak, XVII, 708— an illustrated article 

very interesting to all lovers of trees; 

the strength of oak wood, XXII, 

""Trees ^34; the use of oak bark for 

tanning, XIV, 381; the oak in 

the United States, XXIII, 864-65. 

Elm, VIII, 140 b"; culture of, II, 278. 

Pine, XIX, 110; strength of wood, 
XXII, 634; pines of California, IV, 623; 

(133) 



134 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



pines of the Alps, XIX, 110; culture of, 
II, 277. 

Pine lumbering in the United States, 
XXVIII, 430. 

Fir, IX, 193; strength of wood, XXII, 
634; Scotch pines, XIX, 112. 

Boxwood, IV, 164; uses of wood, XXIV, 
679. 

Rosewood, XX, 874. 

Logwood, XIV, 814; XII, 137. 

Mahogany, XV, 290; IX, 357; strength 
of wood, XXII, 634. 

Eucalyptus, VIII, 570; XIII, 604; 
eucalyptus iil Australia, XXIV, 234, 536. 

The great trees of California are de- 
scribed in IV, 623, and XXI, 705. 

Of the trees that are valuable for their 
products, but not valuable as timber, it 
may be interesting to note the 
"?.Tef following: 

Cinchona (quinine tree), V, 
682; its cultivation in Peru, XVIII, 687; 
in India, III, 490, and XII, 789; and in 
the Himalaya Mountains, XI, 733. 

Caoutchouc (india-rubber), IX, 135; 
XVIII, 687; IV, 78 a'", 203 b"; XII, 875. 

Gutta Percha, IV, 78 a'"; XI, 301. 

Cork {Quercus suber), VI, 356. 

Gall-nuts {Quercus infedoria), X, 41. 

III. FRUIT TREES. 

Olive, XVII, 783; III, 52. 

Orange, XVII, 834. 

Lemon, XIV, 437. 

Banana, III, 265; XIX, 186; and XIX, 
433. 

Mulberry, XVII, 19, and XXII, 63. 

But for the common fruit trees, see 
Chapter XXXIII, entitled The Gardener. 

IV. FOOD PLANTS AND TREES. 

Coffee Plant, cultivation of, VI, 100; 
in Brazil, IV, 204 a'; in Cuba, VI, 602; in 
Arabia, II, 207; in Java, XIII, 614; in 
Ceylon, V, 320; in Venezuela, XXIV, 



151 b'; in British Central Africa (Nyas- 
saland), XXV, 82. 

Tea Plant, XXIII, 104, and IV, 652; 
cultivation of, in China, V, 552; in India, 
XII, 788, and III, 490; in Ceylon, V, 
320 b"; XXVI, 101-02. 

Cocoa, or Cacao, VI, 92. 

Cocoa-nut Palm, VI, 94. 

Date Palm, VI, 731; XVIII, 195; of 
Arabia, II, 207. 

Fig, IX, 135. 

Almond, I, 523. 

Aloe, I, 525. 

Bread-fruit, IV, 216. 

Among the curious trees of the world, 
mention may be made of the Banyan, 
III, 300; Baobab, I, 240; Bo, or sacred 
fig-tree, IX, 135; Upas tree, XXIII, 916; 
and this list might be extended indefi- 
nitely. 

See also Chapter XXXIII, entitled The 
Gardener. 

An account of the great parks of the 
world appeals to the interest of every 
woodsman and every lover of 
trees. See the following arti- 
cles: 

National Parks, XXVIII, 334. 

Parks of the Rocky Mountains, XXVIII, 
335; VI, 145; XXIII, 845. 

Adirondack Park, XXV, 48. 

National Military Parks, XXVIII, 335. 

Yellowstone National Park, XXIX, 618. 

Washington Elm, at Cambridge, 
XXVI, 24. 

Charter Oak, XXVI, 120. 

In conclusion, the reader's attention 
is directed to the article on Arbor Day, 
XXV, 221, and to the paragraph on the 
same subject, XXVII, 302. 

The above references are sufBcient to 
indicate the vast amount of curious, in- 
teresting, and instructive information 
that may be derived from the Britannica 
with reference to this subject of trees. 



Parks 



CHAPTER XXXVI 



The Stock-Raiser and Dairyman 

"The cattle are grazing, 
Their heads never raising ; 
There are forty feeding like one." 

— Wordsworth. 

"The man who has studied a subject is on that subject the intel- 
lectual superior of the man who has not." — Earl Lytton. 



The interests of the stock-raiser are 
in many respects identical with tliose of 
the farmer. Indeed, most farmers are 
stock-raisers, and most stock-raisers are 
by necessity also farmers. Hence, the 
references and readings indicated in 
this chapter are intended for the help 
and guidance both of farmers and stock- 
raisers, and of all readers of the Britan- 
nica who are in any way engaged in the 
breeding or care of domestic animals. 

The chapter on stock-raising in the 
United States, XXV, 96, gives much val- 
uable information that is strictly up to 
date. So also does the paragraph on 
farm animals in the United States, 
XXIX, 365. 

Read the article Breeds and Breed- 
ing, IV, 219; then see what is said of the 
breeding of animals, I, 345, 349, and 
XXI, 758. 

The article on the Horse, XII, 176, is 
a comprehensive one, of great value to 
Tbe Horse ^^^^^ horse-owner. This is 
supplemented by some later 
facts in the article on Agriculture in 
the United States, XXV, 89-101, and 
by further information regarding the 
breeding and rearing of horses, I, 341. 

An interesting article on Horse-Rac- 
ing in the United States may be found 
in XXVII, 322-24. After this, see Trot- 
ting AND Pacing, XXIX, 322. 



Cattle 



For the Arabian horse, see II, 209 b.'" 

For the Persian, XVIII, 635. 

For the Clydesdale, XIV, 252. 

Trotting records, XXIX, 322. 

Famous trotters and pacers, XXIX, 323. 

For the diseases of horses, see XXIV, 
217, 220. 

The art of horse-shoeing is described 
in XXI, 870, and XVII, 172. 

A special article on Cattle, V, 213, is 
interesting for its historical information. 
The chapter on Bovidae, XV, 
438, has a strictly scientific 
value. The breeding of cattle is dis- 
cussed in I, 343. For the diseases of 
cattle, see XXV, 97; XVII, 63; XXIV, 220; 
I, 271; and V, 512. See also Fardel- 
bound, XXVI, 617; Foot-rot, XXVI, 677; 
Founder, XXVII, 16. 

The dairyman will read of the man- 
agement of milch cows, I, 346. He will 
be specially interested in the long arti- 
cle on the Dairy, VI, 677; in the chapter 
on Dairy Products in the United States, 
XXV, 98; in the article on Milk, XVI, 314; 
Beestings, XXV, 409; Butter, IV, 525; 
and Cheese, V, 394. He will also read 
what is said of the freshness and purity 
of milk, and the directions for its treat- 
ment in the dairy, XVI, 316. Within re- 
cent years the methods of making butter 
have undergone radical changes, and 
these methods are described in XXV, 663. 

(135) 



136 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



The Butcher 



See also Artificial Butter, XXV, 664. 

American process of making cheese, 
XXVI, 126. 

The influence of cattle-shows, I, 346, 
is another subject which will claim the 
cattle-breeder's attention. 

One of the chief objects of the stock- 
raiser is to provide beeves, hogs, or sheep 
for the great markets, where they are 
slaughtered and turned into food pro- 
ducts. This latter process does not 
necessarily interest the stock-raiser; it 
concerns rather the butcher and the 
dealer in dressed meats, and to these it 
may be a matter of moment to learn 
how every portion of a slaughtered 
animal may be made to realize 
some profit. The latest im- 
proved methods of slaughtering beeves 
and preparing the various parts for 
market are fully described in an article 
on the Economical System of Abattoirs, 
XXV, 11. A further and more complete 
account of the processes connected with 
the manufacture of flesh-food products 
is given in the article Packing, XXVIII, 
814. 

The article on Sheep, XXI, 820, is one 
of much value to all who have the care 
of these animals. The breed- 
ing and management of sheep 
are further discussed in I, 347, and IV, 
224. The question as to what are the 
best foods in wool-culture is discussed 
in XXIX, 588. 

For Southdowns, see XXII, 762 b." 

For Merinos, XXII, 315 a." 

For Dorsets, VII, 321. 

The diseases of sheep are described in 
XXIV, 221, and XXIII, 573; Murrain, 
XVII, 63. 

The proper method of shearing is de- 
scribed in I, 351. 

And in this connection the article on 
Wool, XXIV, 687, should be read, to- 



Sheep 



Hogs 



gether with the supplementary article 
on Woolen Manufactures in the 
United States, XXIX, 587, and the sec- 
tion on Sheep and Wool, XXV, 98. 

The American wool-grower will also 
be interested in what is said of wool- 
growing in Australia, III, 99 b.'" See 
also the references to Textile Products 
in Chapter XXIII, entitled The Manufac- 
turer, in this Guide. 

Hogs are treated historically and 
scientifically in the article on Swine, 
XXII, 810; and notes concern- 
ing their breeding and man- 
agement are given in I, 355. 

For the history of hog-raising in the 
United States during the past ten years, 
see the section on that subject, XXV, 
97-98. 

Their diseases are described in XXIV, 
221-23, and XVIII, 275. 

Poultry is the subject of a valuable 
article, XIX, 664, wherein the various 
breeds of fowls are described 
at length. This may be sup- 
plemented by the article on Fowl, IX, 
433. The management of poultry re- 
ceives special attention in I, 356. 

Some interesting facts about eggs are 
given in VII, 175 b, 603-04; and the 
latest figures about their production, in 
XXV, 99. See also III, 669-72. 

The Goose is noticed in a special arti- 
cle, X, 691; and the Duck in VII, 436; 
while the Turkey is described at length 
in XXIII, 699. 

The question of foods and feeding is 
one in which the stock-raiser and the 
farmer are always interested. 

The subject of pastures and pasturage 

is intelligently discussed in I, 329, 356, 

and is worthy of the careful 

Pasturage , , , • <• i i 

attention of every stock- 
raiser. See also XIII, 378, 



Poultry 



THE MINER 



137 



Some account of American grass crops 
for pasturage is given in XI, 48-53; and 
the cultivation of American grasses is 
the subject of an article in XXVI, 678. 

The latest facts relating to the pro- 
duction of forage crops in this country 
are given in XXV, 94; XXVI, 678. 

For the culture of Hay, see I, 336. 

The various grains, vegetables, etc., 



used in feeding domestic animals have 
already been referred to in Chapter 
XXXII, entitled The Farmer. 

Other domestic animals, not men- 
tioned in this chapter, are treated of, 
each in its proper place. But the care 
of them cannot properly be said to be- 
long exclusively to the stock-raiser or 
the farmer. (See the Index volume.) 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
The Miner 

" Excellence is never granted to man but as the reward of labor." 

— Sir Joshua Reynolds. 



Mining 



Mining, or the process by w^hich useful 
minerals are obtained from the earth's 
crust, is treated with great ful- 
ness in the Britannica. The 
special article on this subject, XVI, 459- 
94, is a valuable treatise, amply illustra- 
ted v^ith cuts and diagrams, and full of 
interesting information for all who are 
engaged in this branch of industry. It 
may be read by sections, in connection 
with collateral references to other arti- 
cles relating to the different branches 
of the subject. 

1. Manner in which the useful miner- 
als occur in the earth's crust, viz., 
tabular deposits and masses, faults, or 
dislocations, XVI, 459-62. 

2. Prospecting, or search for minerals, 
XVI, 462-63. 

3. Boring with rods and ropes — dia- 
mond drills, XVI, 462-64; Quarrying 
Machinery, XXVIII, 523. 

4. Breaking ground — Tools employed 

— Blasting — Machine drills — 
"SoTesses Driving levels and sinking 

shafts, XVI, 464-69. See also 
Blasting, III, 701; XXIII, 662. 

5. Employment of labor, XVI, 469. 



6. Securing excavations by timber, 
iron, or masonry, XVI, 469-71. 

7. Working away of veins, beds, and 
masses, XVI, 471-76. 

8. Carriage of minerals along under- 
ground roads, XVI, 476. 

9. Raising minerals to the surface, 
XVI, 476-78. 

10. Drainage of mines, XVI, 478-80. 

11. Ventilation and lighting of mines, 
XVI, 480-82. 

12. Means of descending and ascend- 
ing, XVI, 483-84. Safety appliances, 
XXVIII, 642. 

13. Preparation of ores, XVI, 484-88. 

14. Laws relating to mining, XVI, 
488. 

15. Accidents in mines, XVI, 488-89. 

For a general description of the meth- 
ods of coal-mining in the United States, 
see XXVI, 208. 

For statistics respecting the products 
of the world's mining, and especially 
the mineral products of the 
United States, see XVI, 489. 
For a special account and 
description of the minerals of any par- 
ticular country, see the article relating 



Mineral 
Products 



138 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



to that country. For instance, if you 
wish to know what minerals are pro- 
duced in India, see under India, XII, 
803, Also note such references as the 
following: 

Minerals of the Appalachian Moun- 
tains, II, 176. 

Minerals in Alaska, XXV, 113, 114. 

Gold and silver in Bolivia, IV, 13. 

Minerals in Borneo, IV, 51. 

Minerals in Burmah, IV, 492. 

Gold in California, IV, 621. 

Minerals in Arabia, II, 213. 

Minerals in Australia, III, 94. 

Minerals in Cuba, VI, 601. 

And hundreds of others of like char- 
acter. 

For interesting historical notes on the 
discovery and use of certain metals, see 
Metals, XVI, 68. 

Special articles are devoted to all the 
great minerals, as follows: 

Coal, VI, 43-75; classification 
"^ Miner! ^f coal, VI, 44; origin of, VI, 45; 
X, 213; anthracite coal of the 
United States, II, 94, and XXIII, 852; 
coal-mining, VI, 58 (see Coalfields, in In- 
dex volume, 210); analysis of coal, VI, 
74; area of coalfields in the United 
States, I, 597; production in the United 
States, XXIX, 365. 

Gold, X, 659; gold-mining, X, 663, 
and IV, 621; gold in the United States, 
XXIII, 868, 869, and XXVII, 115; gold 
mines of America, I, 628; Alaska, XXV, 
113, 114; Cripple Creek mines, XXVI, 
310; product in the United States, XXIX, 
365. 

Silver, XXII, 76; description of silver, 
XVI, 397; silver and silver-mining, XXIX, 
91; how silver is mined, XVI, 492; prod- 
uct in the United States, XXIX, 365. 
See also Metallurgy, XVI, 62; and Assay- 
ing, II, 633. 

Iron, XIII, 284; ores of iron, XVI, 62; 



iron-mining in the United States, XXIII, 
868; rolling-mill product of iron, XIII, 
337-39; XXVII, 412-13; iron industry in 
the United States, XXIII, 868; product of 
pig iron in the United States, XXIX, 
365; strength of iron, XXII, 634; XXVII, 
401. See also Index volume, page 465. 

Copper, VI, 308; copper-mining, XVI, 
487 b"; copper-mining in the United 
States, XXVI, 279; production in the 
United States, XXIII. 870; XXIX, 365; in 
Michigan, XVI, 247; copper pyrites, XX, 
134; copper-smelting, XXII, 771. 

Lead, XIV, 374; production of lead in 
the United States, XXIII, 871-72; XXIX, 
365, 366; in Missouri, XVI, 549; lead- 
mining, XVI, 487; description of lead 
ores, XVI, 397. 

Zinc, XXIV, 823; production of zinc in 
the United States, XXIII, 871; XXIX, 
366; treatment of zinc ores, XVI, 487 b." 

Tin, XXIII, 427; ores of, XVI, 62; pro- 
duction in the United States, XXIII, 882; 
history of mines in Cornwall, VI, 377. 

Mercury, or Quicksilver, XVI, 36-40; 
production in the United States, XXIX, 
366. 

Aluminum, I, 569; XXV, 151-52; pro- 
duction in the United States, XXIX, 366. 

Petroleum, XVIII, 726; production in 
the United States, XXIX, 366. 

Natural Gas, XXIII, 870; value of 
product in the United States, XXIX, 366. 

Read, finally, the article on Metal- 
lurgy, XVI, 62-68, describing the meth- 
ods used industrially for the extraction 
of metals from their ores. See also: 

Amalgamation of gold, X, 665; of sil- 
ver, XXII, 76; mercurial amalgam, I, 573. 

Blast furnace, IX, 738. 

Assaying, II, 633. 

Table of fusibility of metals, XVI, 72. 

See also Chapters XXXVIII and LIII, 
entitled respectively The Geologist and 
The Mineralogist. 



CHAPTER XXXVIll 



The Geologist 
"Sermons in stones, and good in everything." — As You Lihe It. 



The practical importance of the work 
of the geologist is now very generally 
recognized. It is his to investigate not 
only the manner in which the evolution 
of the earth's great surface features has 
been effected, but, by studying the pe- 
culiarities of local formations, to dis- 
cover what important minerals are 
probably concealed within the earth's 
crust in given situations, what is the 
nature of the soil, and, in general, what 
are the hidden mineral resources of the 
country. The general article on Geol- 
ogy, X, 189-334, by the celebrated Archi- 
bald Geikie, is a very complete and 
excellent introduction to the study of 
this science. It is amply illustrated; 
and the special index, on page 333, will 
assist the busy inquirer in finding the 
answer to almost any question on this 
subject that may be suggested. 

An article of much practical interest 
to American readers is that on The 
United States Geological Survey, 
XXIX, 204. 

The cosmical aspect of geology, X, 
190-96, may be studied further by refer- 
ence to the article Cosmogony, VI, 394. 
For additional curious hypotheses con- 
cerning the origin of the earth, see I, 
407; III, 167; XVII, 150; and XXII, 592. 

Dynamical geology, especially that 
portion of the subject which seeks to 
unravel the complicated pro- 
^ Geology^ cesses by which each continent 
has been built up, is further 
treated under the head of Physical 
Geography, X, 188-89. See also: 

Mountains, XVII, 10, X, 329, and I, 547. 



Volcanoes, X, 214. 

Earthquakes, VII, 526 (Index volume, 
page 291). 

Rivers, XX, 526. 

Lakes, XIV, 217. 

Palseontological geology, or the study 

of organic forms found in the crust of 

the earth, is the subject of an 

""^to^ogy interesting chapter, X, 282-88. 

The subject is treated further 

in the following articles: 

Distribution, VII, 232. 

Birds, III, 631 (see special index, III, 
673). 

Ichthyology, XII, 666; I, 245. 

Ichthyosaurus, XII, 734. 

Mammalia, XV, 349 (see special index, 
XV, 453). 

Mammoth, XV, 454. 

Fossils of America, 1, 509. Fossil foot- 
prints, XXVII, 13. 

Oldest known fossils, IX, 337. 

Stratigraphical geology is treated very 
fully in Volume X, pp. 288-329. 

Archaean rocks, or formation, X, 289. 

Palseozoic, X, 291. 

Secondary, or Mesozoic, X, 312. 

Tertiary or Cainozoic, X, 319. 

Post-Tertiary, or Quarternary, X, 324. 

A further study of these subjects will 
involve references to the following top- 
ics: 

Coal, VI, 43. 

Coalfields and coal-mines, see Index 
volume, page 210. 

Coalfields of America, XXVI, 
208. 

Caves, V, 230. 

Glaziers, see Index volume, page 383. 

(139) 



Practical 
Geology 



140 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Artesian wells, 11, 563; XXV, 256. 

Petroleum, XVIII, 241, 726. 

Natural gas, XXIII, 870. 

Many other articles which will suggest 
themselves to the reader as he pursues 
this study may be found by reference to 
the Index volume. 

In studying the history of the science 
of Geology, you will find the names of 
a few distinguished men to whose labors 
and investigations we are indebted for 
the greater part of our knowledge con- 
cerning this subject. It may be of some 
interest to you to read the story of their 
lives. Among these, the following are 
specially noteworthy : 

James Hutton, XII, 430. 

Abraham G. Werner, XXIV, 529. 



Geologists 



Sir Charles Lyell, XV, 102. 

Hugh Miller, XVI, 330. 

William Buckland, IV, 377. 
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, XVII, 56. 
John Phillips, XVIII, 772. 
William Smith, XXII, 188. 
Alexander Winchell, XXIX, 564. 
Sir J. William Dawson, XXVI, 369. 
Joseph Le Conte, XXVII, 565. 
Jules Marcou, XXVIII, 24. 
John S. Newberry, XXVIII, 202-03. 
Sir A. C. Ramsay, XXVIII, 550. 
Sir Archibald Geikie, XXVII, 72. 
James Dwight Dana, XXVI, 352. 
Louis Agassiz, I, 245. 
Alexander Agassiz, XXV, 83. 
Othniel C. Marsh, XXVIII, 34. 
Josiah D. Whitney, XXIX, 545. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

The Seaman 

"But a great book that comes from a great thinker — it is a ship of 
thought, deep freighted with truth, with beauty, too." 

— Theodore ParJcer. 



History 
of Ships 



I. SHIPBUILDING. 

The subject of greatest importance 
to all navigators is ships. The history 
of shipbuilding, from the first 
rude efforts of primitive man 
to the wonderful achievements 
of the present time, is a topic full of 
interest to both seamen and landsmen. 
In the twenty-first volume of the Ency- 
clopcedia Britannica, page 840, there is a 
very entertaining article on the devel- 
opment of the ship and of the art of 
navigation, particularly in ancient and 
mediaeval times. The ships of the Phoe- 
nicians, the first race of seafaring men, 
are further described in XVIII, 818. The 
ships used by the Greeks in the time of 



Homer, and also the war vessels — bi- 
remes and triremes — used in the earliest 
sea-fights, are noticed at considerable 
length in the pages which follow. Me- 
diaeval merchant vessels are described 
on page 821. 

The very full article on Shipbuilding, 
XXI, 845-64, contains much information 
of general interest. Read the introduc- 
tory paragraphs, p. 845, the descrip- 
tions of the "Great Western" and the 
" Great Eastern," p. 852, the paragraphs 
on Propulsion, p. 861-62, and the section 
on Boatbuilding, p. 864. Read also the 
following articles: 

Primitive boat of wicker-work, III, 
364. 



THE SEAMEN 



141 



Boats 



Ships, etc. 



Whaleboat, XXIV, 555. 
Boatbuilding, XXI, 864. 

Bowing, XXI, 35. 

Lifeboat, XIV, 573. 
Canoes, IV, 716. 
Catamarans, XXVI, 85. 
Yachts and yachting, XXIV, 758. 
Yacht-building, XXIX, 614. 

Steamboat, XXII, 496. 

Steamships, XXI, 862; III, 468; 
XXIX, 153. 
Whaleback steamers, XXIX, 532. 
Marine engines, XXVIII, 26. 
The Great Harry, XVII, 289. 
The Campania and Lucania,XXIX, 154. 
The Great Eastern, IV, 357; XXI, 852. 
The Great Western, IV, 357. 
Oars, XXI, 35; ancient oars, XXI, 843. 
Rowing, XXVIII, 626. 
Sails and sail-making, XXI, 161. 
Mast, IV, 427. 

Spars and rigging, XXI, 623. 
Budder and helm, XXI, 631. 

Cable, IV, 552. 
""sXts Capstan, V, 70. 

Anchor, II, 4. 
Mariner's compass, VI, 200; XV, 525. 
Sailors' knots, XIV, 129. 
Bends and splices, XXI, 617-19. 
Log, XIV, 776. 
Speed-recorder, XXIX, 136. 
Marine glue, XXVII, 111. 

II. NAVIGATION. 

The article on Navigation, or the art 
of conducting a ship across the ocean, 
XVII, 257-85, next claims our attention. 
The first half of this article contains a 
good deal of valuable historical infor- 
mation. The latter half is more tech- 
nical and scientific, and is an exhibition 
of the theory and art of practical, or 
modern navigation. A popular course 
of reading would include the following 
articles or parts of articles: 



Sea Terms 



Dockyards VII,269;wharves,XXIX,532. 
Clearance, XXVI, 193. 
Sounding, XXII, 293. 
Buoys, IV, 474. 

United States buoy service, XXV, 647. 
Naval signals, XXII, 54; XXIX, 88. 
" Law of the road " at sea, XXVIII, 598. 
Fog-signals, XXVI, 669; XXVIII, 598. 
Search-light, XXIX, 42. 
Lighthouses, XIV, 620. 
Lighthouse Board, XXVII, 598. 
Life-saving service in the United 
States, XXVII, 595. 
Latitude, X, 177; XVII, 258. 
Longitude, XXIII, 420; X, 167, 176. 
Sextant, XXI, 760. 

Mariner's compass, VI, 200; XV, 525. 
Nautical Maps, or Charts, XV, 525. 
Tides, XXIII, 375. 
Ocean currents, X, 250; XVII, 282. 
Gulf Stream, III, 18. 
Trade-winds, XVI, 148. 
Derelicts, XXVI, 400. 
Log, XIV, 776. 
Marine league, XXVIII, 30. 
Harbors and docks, XXVII, 225; har- 
bors, XI, 406. 
Law of ports, XI, 421; free ports, 

XXVII, 34. 
Bottomry, IV, 153. 
Tonnage, XXIII, 470. 
Salvage, XXI, 249. 

Marine insurance in the United States, 

XXVIII, 29. 

Marine hospital service, XXVIII, 28. 
Captain, XVII, 301. 
Boatswain, XVII, 302. 
Pilot, XIX, 105. 

Seamanship, XXI, 617-35. This arti- 
cle embraces a great variety of informa- 
tion relative to the duties and 
seaman- labors of a Seaman; how to 

snip ' 

make knots, bends, and splices, 
p. 617 b'"; how to distinguish and name 



142 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



the spars and rigging of different kinds 
of vessels, p. 622; how to lower rigging 
and set up stays, p. 623; how to cast 
anchor, p. 626; all about mooring swiv- 
els, anchors, and cables, p. 626, etc. At 
the end of the article, p. 632, there is a 
complete glossary of terms used by sea- 
men. 

Laws relating to seamen, XXI, 635- 
38. 

Shipping laws, XXIX, 79. 

International Commission for deep 
waterways, XXIX, 502. 

Commerce on the great waterways, 
see Chapter XLVI, entitled The Merchant 
and Trader, 

III. SEA INDUSTEIES. 

Sea fisheries, IX, 211. 

Whale fisheries, XXIV, 555; whale-oil, 
XVII, 765; whalebone, XXIV, 558; XV, 
397. 

Seal fisheries, XXI, 608; sealskins, IX, 
737; extermination of seals, 
XIX, 134; XXV, 435. 

Coral fisheries, VI, 344; XIII, 465. 

Sponge fisheries, XXII, 445. 

Amber deposits in Baltic Sea, I, 579. 

Oyster fisheries, XVIII, 111. 

Pearl oysters, XVIIL 457. 

Cod fisheries, VI, 95; off Newfound- 
land, XVII, 393; in North Sea, IX, 222. 

Mackerel fisheries, XV, 160. 

Herring fisheries, IX, 221, 225. 

Pilchard and Sardine fisheries, IX, 
221-22; XIII, 465; XIX, 98; XXI, 322. 

Salmon fisheries, XXI, 236. 
Shad fishery, XXI, 763; XII, 732. 
Lake fishing, II, 36. 

Fishing-boats, IX, 213. 
Fishing-nets, XVII, 367. 
Fishery Boards and Commissions, XIX, 
138. 



Fisheries 



Description 



Laws relating to fishermen, XXI, 638. 
Fishery laws, IX, 234. 

Fisheries of the United States, XV, 
303. 

Fisheries of Newfoundland, XVII, 
393. 

Fisheries of England, VIII, 211. 

Fisheries of Canada, IV, 684. 

Fisheries of Russia, XXI, 93. 

IV. WONDERS OF THE SEA. 

Depths of the sea. III, 17; XII, 860. 
Deep-sea sounding, XXII, 293. 

Waves, XXIV, 440. 

Tides, XXIII, 375. 
Color of the sea, XIV, 605. 
General description of the sea, XXI, 
605. 
Animals in the sea, VII, 240. 
Sea-anemones, I, 119. 
Sea-bear, XV, 449. 

Sea-cat, XXI, 644. 

Sea-cow, XV, 394. 
Sea-cucumber, III, 412. 
Sea-devil, VII, 119. 
Sea-eagle, VII, 510. 
Sea-elephant, XV, 450. 
Sea-hare, XVI, 680. 
Sea-hedgehog, X, 611. 
Sea-horse, XXI, 606. 
Sea-leopard, XV, 450. 
Sea-lion, XV, 449. 
Sea-otter, XVIII, 73. 
Sea-parrot, XX, 107. 
Sea-pens, I, 120. 
Sea-pie, XVIII, 114. 
Sea-serpent, XXI, 638. 
Sea-slugs, VII, 554. 
Sea-snakes, XXII, 208. 
Sea-swallow, XXIII, 206. 
Sea-trout, XXI, 232. 
Sea-unicorn, XV, 402. 
Sea-urchins, VII, 544. 
Sea-wolf, XXI, 645. 



Curiosities 



THE RAILROAD MAN 



143 



■''he Navy 



V. MARINE WARFARE, 

History of modern navies, XVII, 287. 

The Navy of the United States, 
XXVIII, 180. 
Navy yards, XXVIII, 185. 

Naval Academy of the United States, 
XVII, 309-10; XXVIII, 177. 

Naval Observatory, XXVIII, 178. 

Navy Department of the United 
States, XXVIII, 188. 

Ironclads, XVII, 292-97. 

Ironclad cruisers, XXVIII, 184. 

Armored ships of the United States, 
XXVIII, 186. 

The Massachusetts, XXVIII, 181. 

The Kearsarge,XXVII,482; XXVIII, 182. 

Torpedo-boats, XXVIII, 28; XXIX, 189. 

Torpedoes, XXIX, 303. 

Submarine boats, XXIX, 188. 

Turret ships, XVII, 293. 

Monitors, XXVIII, 183, 184. 

Marines, XV, 551. 



Naval Reserves, or Naval Militia, 
XXVIII, 179. 
Naval lieutenant, XVII, 301. 
Captain, XVII, 301. 
Commodore, XVII, 301. 
Vice-admiral, I, 145. 
Admiral, I, 141. 
Embargo, XXVI, 559. 
Blockade, HI, 725. 
Privateering, XIX, 784.. 
Piracy, XIX, 125. 
Hovering acts, XXVII, 329. 

Maritime law, XXI, 610. 
Right of search, XXI, 638. 

VI. MISCELLANEOUS. 

Boat-races, XXVIII, 626. 

Dredges and dredging, XXIX, 154. 

For further references relating to 
ships, canals, and commerce, see Chap- 
ter XLVI, entitled The Merchant and 
Trader. 



CHAPTER XL 



The Railroad Man 



" What Mr. Robert Stephenson recently said of the locomotive, at a 
meeting of engineers at Newcastle, is true of nearly every other capital 
invention : ' It is due,' he said, 'not to one man, but to the efforts of a 
nation of mechanical engineers.'" — Samuel Smiles. 



I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RAILWAY. 

Not only railroad men, but all intelli- 
gent readers, will be interested in the 
story of how the modern rail- 
Evoiution ^ay has been developed from 
Railway the old tramways of two hun- 
dred years ago, a story which 
is briefly but entertainingly told in the 



twentieth volume of the B^itannica, be- 
ginning on page 230. 

Other interesting facts relative to the 
development of the railroad may be 
learned from the following references: 

Richard Trevithick, XXIII, 589. 

Greorge Stephenson, XXII, 564. 

Sir Isambard Kingdom Brunei, IV, 356. 



144 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Development of railroads in the 
United States, XX, 264; XXVIII, 543. 

Latest facts concerning railroads in 
the United States, XXVIII, 532. 

Railroad pooling, XXVIII, 539. 

Railroad financiering, XXVIII, 546. 

Laws relating to railways, XX, 261. 

Law of abandonment, I, 12. 

Use of railways in time of war, XXIV, 
370. 

Railways and agriculture, I, 272 a. 

II. ROADS AND BRIDGES.' 

Railway construction, XX, 240. 

Rails, XX, 250. 

Steel rails, XXVIII, 535. 

Testing railway rails, XIII, 364. 

Railway stations, XX, 243. 

Railway bridges, IV, 254. 

Mountain railways, XXVIII, 153. 

Pacific railways, I, 627; XXVIII, 311, 
534. 

Bicycle railways, XXV, 467-68. 

Street railways, XXVIII, 149. 

Electric railways, XXIII, 526, 539. 

Trolley railways in the United States, 
XXIX, 319. 

Tramways, XXIII, 537; early tram- 
roads, XX, 230. 

Cable railways, XXVI, 6. 

Elevated street railroads, XX, 249; 
XXVIII, 542. 

Atmospheric railways, III, 33. 

Switches, XX, 246. 

Switch mechanism, XXIX, 211. 

Locking mechanism for railroad 
switches, XXVII, 617. 

Railroad frog, XXVII, 42. 



The block system of railroad signals, 
XXV, 507. 

III. ENGINES AND ROLLING-STOCK. 

Locomotives, XX, 254; XXII, 547. 

Latest improvements in locomotives, 
XXVII, 618; XXVIII, 535. 

Mogul engines, XXVIII, 535. 

Richard Trevithick, XXIII, 589. 

Matthias W. Baldwin, XXV, 332. 

Traction engines, XXII, 549. 

Traction on railroads, XX, 256. 

Electricity as a motor, XXVIII, 541. 
See also references in Chapter XXVI, 
entitled The Electrician. 

Application of electricity, XX, 260. 

Electric cars, XXVI, 58. 

Railroad carriages and cars, XX, 257. 

Latest improvements in passenger 
cars, XXVIII, 536. 

George M. Pullman, XXVIII, 519. 

Freight cars, XXVIII, 537. 

Railroad speed, XXVIII, 538. 

Speed-recorder, XXIX, 136. 

Safety appliances, XXVIII, 537. 

Railway brakes, XX, 259. 

The Westinghouse brake, XX, 259. 

Standard air-brake, XXV, 572. 

Snow-plows, XXIX, 113. 

American Railway Union, XXVI, 374; 
XXVII, 529. 

John Henry Devereux, XXVI, 405. 

Eugene V. Debs, XXVI, 374. 

See also Chapters XXIV, XXV, XXVII, 
and XXX in this volume, entitled The 
Mechanic, The Machinist, The Inventor, 
and The Engineer. 



CHAPTER XLI 



The Soldier 

"In books warlike affairs are methodized; the rights of peace pro- 
ceed from books." — Richard cle Bury 



War 



I. WAR. 

Among the many articles in the Br'i- 
tannica which are of special interest to 
the soldier, perhaps none is of 
greater practical value than 
that on War, XXIV, 364-86. This is, in 
short, a comprehensive treatise on the 
effective organization and employment 
of armies in active warfare. To officers 
in the military service its importance 
will be at once apparent. The first sec- 
tion of the article is of an historical 
character, and will appeal to the inter- 
est of the non-military reader as well as 
to that of the soldier. Other sections 
relate to strategy, p. 369; infantry tac- 
tics, p. 374; cavalry tactics, p. 378; and 
artillery tactics, p. 380. It concludes 
with a special chapter on naval strategy 
and tactics, p. 384. See Declaration of 
War, XXVI, 380; and War Department, 
XXIX, 478. 

IL ARMIES. 

The article Army, II, 489-541, is of 
no less interest. The history of the 
armies of ancient and mediae- 
val times, which occupies the 
first four pages, is of importance to 
every student. This is followed by 
other historical sections equally val- 
uable, as. Modern armies, p. 493; the 
British army, p. 497. After this, the 
great armies of the world are each de- 
scribed in a separate chapter: 

British army, II, 501; its present con- 
dition, XXVII, 150. 

10 



The Army 



German army, II, 519; its present con- 
dition, XXVII, 85. 

French army, II, 525; its present con- 
dition, XXVII, 21. 

Austrian army, II, 528; its present 
condition, XXV, 300. 

Russian army, II, 531; its present con- 
dition, XXVIII, 634. 

Italian army, II, 535; its present con- 
dition, XXVII, 426. 

Army of modern Greece, XXVII, 161. 

Other European armies, II, 536. 

Army of the United States, 11, 541, 
with a supplementary article giving the 
latest statistics, XXV, 244. 

Army regulations, XXV, 247, 

III. arms and armor. 

Arms and armor, an historical article, 
with illustrations, II, 485-89. 

History of the sword, XXII, 839. 

Bows and arrows, II, 325. 

Gunnery, XI, 263-81, and XXVII, 198. 

Gunmaking,XI, 246-63; XXVII, 186-98. 
Machine-guns, XXVII, 186. 
Improvements in military 
rifles, XXVII, 187. 

Rapid-firing guns, XXVII, 186. 

Small-calibre rifles, XXVII, 190. 

Heavy ordnance, XXVII, 190. 

Service guns of the United States, 
XXVII, 195. 

The Rodman guns, XXVIII, 606. 

The Krupp guns, XXVII, 520. 

The Maxim guns, XXVIII, 52. 

Dynamite gun, XXVI, 475. 

Gatling gun, XXVII, 70. 

(145) 



Great Guns 



146 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Military 
Companies 



Chassepot rifle, XXVI, 122. 

Mauser-Mannlicher rifle, XXVII, 187- 
88. 

Improvements in gunpowders, XXVII, 
199. 

Arsenals, XXV, 254; II, 552. 

Velocity of projectiles, XXVII, 198. 

Greek fire, XI, 142. 

Ammunition, I, 652. 

The range-finder, XXVIII, 551. 

IV. THE PROFESSION OF ARMS, 

Roman equites, VIII, 451. 
Feudal military service, XIV, 115. 

Knighthood, XIV, 112. 

Gentlemen-at-arms, XXVII, 76. 

Gendarmerie, X, 127. 
Condottiere, VI, 227. 
Chasseurs, XXVI, 122. 
Cuirassiers, XXVI, 331. 
Militia, XXVIII, 98. 
The Signal Service, XXIX, 87. 
Coast-guard, XXVI, 214; XXVIII, 552. 
The Black Watch, XXV, 494. 
Aldershott Camp, I, 419. 

Enlistment, VIII, 397. 

Military costumes, VI, 424. 
Barracks, III, 337. 
Tw'etc I^esertion, XXVI, 403. 
■ ■ Military Law, XVI, 308. 

Martial Law, XXVIII, 36. 

Military Academy of the United 
States, XXVIII, 95. 

Military Colleges and Schools, XXVIII, 
97. 

Legion of Honor, XIV, 417. 

Grand Army of the Republic, XXVII, 
138. 

Pensions, XXVIII, 382. 

Soldiers' Homes, XXIX, 114. 

V. IN ACTIVE SERVICE. 

Militia, XVI, 312. 
Infantry, II, 508. 
Cavalry, V, 227. 



Battle 



Artillery, II, 572; American artillery, 
XXV, 261. 
Battery, III, 383. 

Battle, III, 383-85. 

Bombardment, XXV, 538. 
Escalade, XXVI, 588. 
Fortification, IX, 371-413. 
Blockhouse, XXV, 507. 
Pontoon, XIX, 470. 
Ambulance, I, 584. 
Forage, XXVI, 677. 
Armistice, II, 484. 
Blockade, Law of, XXV, 506. 

VI. FORTY-SEVEN WARS. 

Trojan War (b. c. 1193), XX, 658. 

Persian War (b. c. 490), VI, 727; I, 426. 

Peloponnesian War, XI, 91; XVIII, 
543. 

Wars of Alexander (b. c. 336-32), I, 
425. 

The Punic Wars (b. c. 264-149), V, 14L 

War between Csesar and Pompey 
(b. c. 48), IV, 566. 

Mohammed's Wars (a. d. 623-29), XVI, 
578. 

Charlemagne's War (a. d. 775-800), V, 
349; XIII, 479; XXI, 367. 

Danish Invasions of England (835- 
905), I, 447. 

Wars of Jenghis Khan (1200-27), 
XIII, 631. 

The Crusades (1190-1250), VI, 549. 

Edward I's Wars with Scotland (1296- 
1305), XX, 608; VII, 592; XXIV, 347-48. 

The Hundred Years' War, IX, 481. 

Tamerlane's WarS (1370-1405), XXIII, 
46, 425. 

Wars of the Roses (1455-71), VIII, 
293-94. 

The Spanish War (Spanish Armada, 
1588), II, 476. 

The Thirty Years' War (1618-48), IX, 
499. 

Wars of Cromwell (1642-57), VI, 528. 



THE SOLDIER 



147 



The English Revolution of 1688, VIII, 
314. 

War of the Spanish Succession (1702- 
08), HI, 110. 

The Scots' Rebellion (1745-46), V, 369. 

War of the Austrian Succession (1741- 
48), III, 110. 

Seven Years' War (1756-63), III, 111. 

American Revolution (1775-83), VIII, 
320; XXIII, 791. 

French Revolution (1792-98), IX, 525. 

Wars of Napoleon (1796-1815), XVII, 
203. 

War of 1812 (1812-15), XXIII, 794. 

Greek War for Independence, XI, 91. 

Black Hawk War (1832), XXIII, 800. 

Seminole War (1835-42), IX, 298. 

The Irish Rebellion (1798), XIII, 277. 

Mexican War (1846-48), XXIII, 805. 

Russo-Turkish War (1853-55), IX, 549. 

Indian Mutiny (1857-59), II, 517. 

Italian War (1859), XIII, 500. 

Italian War for Unification (1860-61), 
XIII, 501. 

American Civil War (1861-65), XXIII, 
816-19. 

Prussia's War against Denmark, X, 452. 

Austro-Prussian War (1866), X, 453. 

Franco-German War (1870), X, 453. 

Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), XXIII, 
693. 

Chilean War (1891), XXVI. 152. 

Corean War (1895), XXVI, 284. 

Armenian Massacres (1896), XXIX, 335. 

Spanish-American War (1898), XXIX, 
382-96. 

Boer War (1899-1902), XXV, 516. 

" Boxer " Rising in China (1900), XXVI, 
155. 

VII. 120 FAMOUS BATTLES. 

Marathon (b. c. 490), XI, 89. 
Thermopylse (b. c. 480), XI, 90. 
Salamis (b. c. 480), XXI, 215; XI, 90. 
Platgea (b. c. 479), XIX, 188; XI, 90. 
Cunaxa (b. c. 401), VI, 664 b.'" 



Chseronea (b. c. 338), V, 322; XI, 93; 
XV, 140 a." 

Arbela (b. c. 331), I, 427. 

Caudine Forks (b. c. 321), XX, 761. 

Drepanum (b. c. 249), XXIII, 556. 

Cannse (b. c. 216), IV, 712^ 
^Battles XX, 768 a"; XI, 396 a.' 

The Metaurus (b. c. 207), XI, 
397; XI, 455 b.' 

Zama (b. c. 202), XXI, 488 b"; XI, 397a.'" 

Cynoscephalas (b. c. 197), IX, 251 b.' 

Pharsalus, or Pharsalia (b. c. 48), IV, 
566 b.' 

Philippi (b. c. 42), XVIII, 760. 

Actium (b. c. 31), I, 371 a." 

Siege of Jerusalem (a. d. 70), XIII, 437. 

Adrianople (a. d. 378), XXIV, 42. 

Chalons-sur-Marne (a. u. 451), V, 328. 

Soissons (a. d. 486), IX, 467. 

Xeres (711), XXII, 324 a." 

Tours (732), V, 370. 

Roncesvalles (778), XX, 642 a.' 

Ethandun (now Edington, 878), I, 
447 a."' 

Brunanburh (937), VIII, 257 a'"; XXV, 
622;XXI, 501;II, 727 a. 

Clontarf (1014), XIII, 260 a'; XXVI, 
203. 

Assandun, or Ashdown (1016), V, 36 a"'; 
VII, 581 a." 

Dunsinane (1054), XVIII, 680 a." 

Stamfordbridge (1066), VIII, 262 b'"; 
XI, 434 a', 435 a." 

Hastings, or Senlac (1066), VIII, 262 b'"; 
XXII, 763 a.'" 

Ascalon (1099), II, 590 b." 

Tinchebrai (1106), XVII, 558 b"; XI, 
585 a"; VIII, 271 b.'" 

Northallerton, or Battle of the Stand- 
ard (1138), XVII, 568; XXI, 505 a." 

Arsuf, or Arsouf (1191), XX, 555 a.'" 

Bouvines (1214), XXV, 560; XVIII, 
70 b"; IX, 478. 

Lewes (1264), XIV, 490. 

Evesham (1265), XVI, 814 b. 



148 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Stirling (1297), XXI, 509 b." 

Falkirk (1298), IX, 14 a; XXIV, 348 a.' 

Bannockburn (1314), VII, 593 a." 

Morgarten (1315), XXII, 822 a.' 

Dundalk, or Foughard (1318). XIII, 
266 b'; XX, 610 b. 

Halidon Hill (1333), XXI, 511 b" ; VII, 
593 a.'" 

Crecy (1346), VII, 595 b.' 

Neville's Cross (1346), XXI, 511 b"; 
XVIII, 533 b/ 

Poitiers (1356), VII, 595 b." 

Sempach (1386), XV, 42 b"; XXII, 823 a/ 

Otterburn, or Chevy Chase (1388), XXI, 
512 b." 

Homildon Hill (1402), XVIII, 534 a; 
XXI, 513 b; 

Shrewsbury (1403), XXI, 885 a'; XI, 
588 b'; XVIII, 534 a.' 

Grilnwald, near Tannenberg (1410), 
XXIV, 829 a"; XIX, 301 a.' 

Agincourt (1415), I, 252. 

Fatay (1429), XIII, 707 b.' 

Varna (1444), XIX, 301a"; XXIV, 
99 a.' 

Towton (1461), VII, 594 a"; XV, 543 b.'" 

Bosworth (1485), XI, 590 b'; XXV, 552. 

Flodden Field (1513), XIII, 567. 

Pavia (1525), IX, 608 a"; V, 359 b. 

Pinkie (1547), XXII, 273 a'"; VII, 595 a.' 

Jarnac (1569), XIII, 603. 

Zutphen (1586), XXIV, 871 a'"; XXII, 
40 a." 

Ivry (1590), IX, 497 a.'" 

Breitenfeld (1631), XIV, 431b': XI, 
298 a.'" 

Liitzen (near Leipsic, 1632), XI, 298 a.' 

Naseby (1645), VI, 530 a." 

Dunbar (1650), VI, 531 b'; VII, 459. 

Worcester (1651), VI, 532 a.' 

Vienna (1683), XIX, 307. 

Boyne (1690), XIII, 274 b.' 

Xarva (1700), V, 364 b.' 

Blenheim (1704), III, 110 a.'" 

Pultowa (1709), V, 365 a. 



Dettingen (1743), iX, 516 b'; XXVI, 
405. 

Fontenoy (1745), IX, 516 b"; VI, 623 a'; 
XXI, 362 a"; XXVI, 671. 

Culloden (1746), VI, 615. 

Plassey (1757), VI, 11 a.' 

Rossbach (1757), IX, 648 a." 

Zorndorf (1758), IX, 648 a." 

Minden (1759), XVI, 358 b'; IX, 74 b.' 

Quebec (1759), IX, 519 a'"; XXIV, 664. 

Lexington (1775), XXIII, 785. 

Bunker Hill (1775), XXIII, 785. 

Saratoga (1777), XXIII, 785. 

Yorktown (1781), VI, 379 b'; XXIII, 785. 

Valmy (1792), XIV, 30 a.'" 

Marengo (1800), XVII, 211 a." 

Hohenlinden (1800), III, 115 a." 

Alexandria (1801), VII, 660 a'; I, 42 a.' 

Assaye (1803), II, 623 a'"; XXIV, 522. 

Austerlitz (1805), III, 89; XVII, 216 b.'" 

Jena (1806), XVII, 217. 

Eylau (1807), XXI, 108 b'"; XXVI, 606. 

Freidland (1807), XVII, 217-18; IX, 
684. 

Corunna (1809), VI, 392 a"; XVI, 831 a.'" 

Albuera (1811), I, 403. 

Salamanca (1812), XXII, 358 b"; XXIV, 

524 a." 

Borodino (1812), XVII, 223 b'"; XXV, 
549. 

Vitoria (1813), XXIV, 524 b'; XXIV, 
283 a." 

Leipsic (1813), XIV, 431 b'; XVII, 227 a,.'" 

Waterloo (1815), III, 384 a'; XXIV, 

525 a"; XVII, 230-31. 

Meanee, or Miani (1843), XVII, 183 a"; 
XII, 847 a." 

Sobraon (1846), XII, 847 b'; XI, 4 a.'" 

Gujrat, Gujerat, or Guzerat (1846), 
XII, 847 b'"; XI, 4 a.'" 

Vera Cruz (1847), XXIV, 176. 

Novara (1849), XVII, 615 b'"; V, 369 a; 
XX, 219 a. 

Inkermann (1854), VI, 520 a'; XX, 227 b.' 

Balaklava (1855), VI, 520 a.' 



THE SOLDIER 



149 



Siege of Lucknow (1857), XII, 849. 

Magenta (1859), III, 120-21. 

Solferino (1859), III, 121 a'; IX, 550. 

Bull Run (1861), XXIII, 816, 817; XXV, 
641. 

Vicksburg (1863), XXIX, 438-39. 

Gettysburg (1863), III, 384 a"; XXVII,89. 

Sadowa, or Koniggratz (1866), XIV, 
139. 

Gravelotte (1870), XXVII. 147. 

Sedan (1870), IX, 552. 

Shipka Pass (1877), XXVII, 133. 

Plevna (1877), XXIII,693 a'"; XXVII,133. 

Rorke's Drift (1879), XXVI, 114 (John 
R. M. Chard). 

Charasaib, 12 miles from Kabul (Oct., 
1879), XXV, 57; XXVIII, 600 (Lord Rob- 
erts). 

Majuba Hill (1881), XXIX, 120. 

Tel-el-Kebir (1882), XXIX, 242. 

El-Obeid, or Kashgil (1883), XXV, 66; 
XXVII, 685. 

Khartum taken by the Mahdi (1885), 

XXV, 66, 67; XXVII, 685. 
Adua (1896), XXV, 67. 

Nakileh, on the Atbara (1898), XXVII, 
506. 
Omdurman (1898), XXVII, 506. 

VIII. BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

Antietam (Sept. 16-17, 1862), XXV, 203. 

Beaufort (Apr. 25, 1862), XXIII, 817. 

Bull Run (July 21, 1861, and Aug. 29, 
1862), XXV, 641. 

Chancellorsville (May 2-3, 1863), 
XXIII, 817. 

Chickamauga (Sept. 18-20, 1863), 

XXVI, 148. 

Chattanooga (Nov. 23-25, 1863), XXVI, 
124. 

Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20,1863),XXIII, 
818. 

Fort Donelson (Feb. 13-16, 1862), 
XXVI, 436. 

Fair Oaks (May 31, 1862), XXVI, 612. 



Five Forks (April 1, 1865), XXVI, 657. 
Franklin (Nov. 30, 1864), XXVII, 26. 
Fredericksburg (Dec. 13, 1862), XXVII, 
31. 
Gaines Mill (June 27, 1862), XXVII, 54. 
Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1868). XXVII, 89. 
Malvern Hill (July 1, 1862), XXVIII, 9. 
Pittsburg Landing (April 6-7, 1862). 

XXVIII, 437. 

Spottsylvania Court House (May 7-12, 
1864), XXIX, 142. 

Siege of Vicksburg (May 22-July 4, 
1863), XXIX, 438. 

Surrender of Vicksburg (July 4, 1863), 
XXIII, 818. 

The Wilderness Campaign (1864), 

XXIX, 550. 

IX. SEA FIGHTS. 

Salamis (b. c. 480), XXI, 215; XI, 90. 

Coast of Dorset (a. d. 897), I, 448 a. 

English Channel (1293), XVII, 287 a.'" 

Sluys (1340), VII, 593 b'; VIII, 286 b': 
XVII, 287 b"'-288 a.' 

Lepanto (1571), XIV, 4"68 a"; XIII, 
728 a.' 

Gravelines (Spanish Armada, 1588), 
II, 476. 

Santa Cruz (1657), III, 698 b. 

Ushant (June 1, 1794), XII, 337 a." 

Cape St. Vincent (1797), XXI, 211. 

Camperdown (1797), VII, 460 b.'" 

Battle of the Nile (1798), VIII, 325. 

Battle of Trafalgar (1805), VI, 132 a; 
XVII, 333 a.' 

Navarino (1827), XVII, 256 a'; VI, 
98 a; XXIII, 691. 

Monitor and Merrimac (1862), XXIII, 
817. 

Lissa (1866), XIV, 701 a.'" 

The Yalu river (1894), XXVI, 285. 

Manila Bay (1898), XXVI, 407; XXVIII, 
13. 

Santiago de Cuba (1898, XXIX, 396; 
XXVI, 101; XXIX, 19. 



150 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



X. THIRTY-TWO GREAT SOLDIERS. 

Cyrus the Great, VI, 663. 

Alexander the Great, I, 425. 

Hannibal, XI, 394. 

Scipio Africanus, XXI, 488. 

Julius Caesar, IV, 562. 

Stilicho, XXII, 572. 

Belisarius, III, 462. 

Charlemagne, V, 349. 

William the Conqueror, XXIV, 606. 

Kobert Bruce, XX, 608. 

The Black Prince, VII, 595. 

Earl of Warwick, XXIV, 401. 

Oliver Cromwell, VI, 528. 

Gustavus Adolphus, XI, 298. 

Turenne, XXIII, 666. 

Prince of Conde, VI, 218. 



John Sobieski, XIX, 306-08. 
Charles XII, V, 364. 
Peter the Great, XVIII, 712. 
Frederick the Great, IX, 646. 
Marlborbugh, XV, 560. 
Washington, XXIV, 408. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, XVII, 199; and 
see Index volume. 
Duke of Wellington, XXIV, 521. 
Ulysses S. Grant, XXVII, 142. 
Robert E. Lee, XIV, 400. 
" Stonewall " Jackson, XIII, 544. 
William T. Sherman, XXIX, 77. 
Count von Moltke, XXVIII, 122. 
'' Chinese Gordon," XXVII, 125. [600. 
Lord Roberts, of Kandahar, XXVIII, 
Lord Wolseley, XXIX, 579. 



CHAPTER XLII 

The American Citizen 

"The worth of a State in the long run is the worth of the individ- 
uals composing it." — John Stuart Mill. 



It is proposed in this chapter to indi- 
cate a few of the leading articles in the 
Encydopcedia Britannica which relate to 
the science of government, and which 
are therefore of special interest and 
value to every citizen who has a voice 
in the conduct of public affairs, no less 
than to students, professional politi- 
cians, and statesmen. 

Let us take as the basis of our studies 
the Constitution of the United States, 
the full text of which is given in the 
Ency. Britannica XXVI, page 267. Read 
next the article Constitution and Con- 
stitutional Law, VI, 275, from which 
you may derive some idea of the English 
Constitution and of the points wherein 
it differs from our own. Then the fol- 



lowing courses of reading may be taken 
up, either independently or in the order 
in which they are here mentioned: 

I. on government in general. 

Government, XI, 9-20. This is a 
thoughtful and interesting article on 
(1) the forms of government. 
Forms of ai-i(j (2) the sphere of govern- 
ment " ment. Under the first division 
is an account of the three 
standard forms of government: the 
monarchy, the aristocracy, and the re- 
public. Then follow chapters on: 
The government of Rome, p. 11. 
Feudalism, p. 12. 

Parliamentary government, p. 12. 
Cabinet government, p. 13. 



THE AMERICAN CITIZEN 



151 



Monarchy 



The relation between government and 
laws, p. 14. 

Under the second division the follow- 
ing topics are discussed: 

Judicature, p. 15. 

State and Church, p. 16, 

The laissez-faire theory, p. 16. 
Sphere of Education and labor, p. 17. 
Govern- Federal government, p. 19. 
™®'^* Among the numerous shorter 

articles on special divisions of the sub- 
ject, the following deserve careful read- 
ing: 

Patriarchal government, XVIII, 420. 

Monarchy, XI, 11; monarchy in an- 
cient Rome, XX, 751. 

Emperor, VIII, 164; empire, 
VIII, 166. 

House of Lords, VIII, 235. 

House of Commons, VIII, 235. 

Titles of honor, XXIII, 444. 

Coronation, VI, 380. 

Parliament, XVIII, 307; powers and 
privileges of parliament, p. 316. 

Parliamentary procedure, XVIII, 317. 

Act of Parliament, I, 113. 

British Cabinet, IV, 550. 

Budget, IV, 393. 

Aristocracy. Nobility, XVII, 538. 

The government of Venice, p. 541. 

The nobility of England, p. 

Aristocracy, prjq 
etc. 

The Polish aristocracy, p. 543. 
Peerage, XVIII, 468. 
Republic, XI, 12. 

Ancient Roman republic, XX, 754. 
French republic, IX, 532. 
The republic and socialism, XXII, 232. 
Socialism, XXII, 216. 
Anarchism, XXV, 181. 

II. HISTORY OF AMERICAN POLITICS. 

1. Foundation Principles: 
Declaration of Independence (full 
text), XXVI, 379. 



Articles of Confederation (full text), 
XXV, 258. 

Constitution of the United States (full 
text), XXVI, 267. 

2. Political Parties: 
Federalist Party, XXVI, 626. 

Anti-Federal Party, XXV, 204. 
TartTes Democratic Party, XXVI, 392; 
XXIII, 792. 

Whig Party, XXIX, 536. 

Free-Soil Party, XXVII, 35. 

Anti-Masonic Party, XXV, 204. 

Native American and Know-Nothing 
Party, XXV, 171. 

Republican Party, XXIII, 788; XXVIII, 
577. 

Greenback Party, XXVII, 164, 530. 

People's Party, XXVIII, 383. 

Labor parties, XXVII, 529. 

Socialistic Labor Party, XXVII, 531. 

Mugwumps, XXVIII, 157. 

Prohibition Party, XXVIII, 495. 

3. Departments of Government : 

(1) Executive Department, XXVI, 601. 
Presidential Elections, XXIX, 361. 
Powers of the President, XXIII, 787. 
Department of State, XXIX, 151. 
Treasury Department, XXIX, 311. 
War Department, XXIX, 478. 
Department of the Interior, XXVII, 393. 

Department of Justice, 
XXVII, 556. 

Veto, XXIV, 223. 
Casting vote, XXVI, 83. 
List of Presidents, XXIII, 834. 

(2) Legislative Department— Congress 
of the United States, XXVI, 258. 

History of Congress, XXIX, 358. 
Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, XXIII, 786. 

The franking privilege, XXVII, 25. 

(3) Judicial Department — Supreme 



The 
President 



Congress 



152 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Elections 



Court of the United States, II, 183; 

supreme XIII, 798; XXIX, 196. 

coiirt See also Chapter XLVIII in 

this Guide, entitled The Lawyer. 

4. Citizensh ip : 

Citizenship in the United States, 

XXVI, 175. 

Immigration into the United States, 

XXVII, 364. 

Naturalization, XXVIII, 175. 

Allegiance, I, 511. 

Qualifications of voters in the differ- 
ent States, XXVI, 504. 

Electors, XXVI, 505. 
Ballot, III, 249; Australian 
ballot system, XXV, 336. 
Voting-machine, XXIX, 460. 
Elections, VIII, 4; election laws in the 
States, XXVI, 503; primary elections, 

XXVIII, 486. 

State governments, XXII, 475. 
Local governments — the borough, IV, 
55; the town, XXIX, 306. 
Civil rights, XXVI, 178. 
Disfranchisement, XXVI, 424. 
See especially Civics, XXVI, 176. 

5. Relations with other Governments: 
Treaties, XXIII, 654. 

Alliance, I, 515. 
Ambassadors, I, 577; XXV, 155. 
Ministers, XVI, 494. 
Consuls, VI, 280. 
Diplomacy, VII, 218. 
Diplomatic agents, XXVI, 422. 

6. Miscellaneous Topics: 
Archons (Greek), II, 419. 
Exarchs, VIII, 684. 
Ephori, VIII, 416. 
Tribunes (Roman), XXIII, 591. 
iEdiles (Roman), I, 163. 
Quaestors, XX, 151. 
Dictator, VII, 154. 
Comitia,VI, 174. 



Althing, XXV, 150. 

Amnesty, I, 654. 

Reconstruction, XXVIII, 560. 

Finances of the United States, XXVI, 
640; national debts, VIII, 620 a; XVII, 
249-54; debt of the United States, XXVI, 
374; debts of various countries, XXVI, 376. 

See Chapter XLV, entitled The Banker 
and Financier, in this Guide. 

Indian affairs of the United States, 
XII, 862-63; XXVII, 374. 

Kitchen Cabinet, XXVII, 505. 

7. Important Passages in the Political 
History of the United States: 

Declaration of Independence, XIII, 
625. 

Alien and Sedition laws, XXV, 132. 

Whisky rebellion, XXIX, 537. 

Monroe Doctrine, XXVIII, 125. 

Dorr's Rebellion, XXVI, 439. 

Missouri Compromise, XXIII, 798, 809. 

Annexation of Texas, XXIII, 219, 804. 

Mexican War, XXIII, 805. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, XXIII, 808. 

Slavery in the United States, XXII, 150. 

John Brown's raid, IV, 346; XI, 438; 
XXIII, 812. 

Civil War, XIV, 666. 

Draft riots of 1863, XXVI, 446. 

Reconstruction, XXIII, 820-21 ; XXVIII, 
560. 

Credit-Mobilier scandal, XXVI, 306. 

Clayton-Bulwer treaty (relating to 
ship canals), XXVI, 192. 

Chinese Exclusion Act, XXVI, 159; 
XXIX, 370. 

Behring Sea Question, XXV, 435; 
XXIX, 369. 

The "Crime of 1873," XXVI, 309. 

Electoral Commission of 1877, XXIII, 
823; XXVI, 505. 

The " Force Bill " (Federal Elections 
bill), XXVI, 680. 

The Fisheries Question, IX, 234-35; 
XXVI, 653. 



THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE 



153 



Proceedings regarding Hawaiian an- 
nexation, XXVII, 254-56. 

The Venezuelan Question, XXIX, 378. 

The National Election in 1896, XXIX, 
379. 

The War with Spain, XXIX, 382-96. 

A SHOET COURSE OF READING IN POLITI- 
CAL BIOGRAPHY. 

Aristides (b. c), II, 444. 

Pericles (b. c), XVIII, 539. 

Cato (b. c. 95), V, 209. 
Patriots Alfred the Great, I, 447. 

statesmen Robert the Bruce (14th cen- 
tury), XX, 608. 

William the Silent, XXIV, 614-15. 

Oliver Cromwell (17th century), VI, 
528. 

George Washington (18th century), 
XXIV, 408. 

Andreas Hofer (18th century), XII, 
46. 

Simon Bolivar, IV, 8. 

Giuseppe Garibaldi, XIII, 497. 

Machiavelli, XV, 147. 

Sir Thomas More, XVI, 842. 

Wallenstein, XXIV, 349. 

John Hampden, XI, 383. 

Algernon Sidney, XXII, 38. 

Cardinal Richelieu, XX, 559; IX, 
500-03. 

Mazarin, XV, 658. 



Lord Bolingbroke, IV, 6. 

Lord Chatham, V, 381. 

Edmund Burke, IV, 481. 

George Canning, IV, 714. 

William Pitt, XIX, 143. 

Sir Robert Peel, XVIII, 463. 

Lord Palmerston, XVIII, 197. 

Benjamin Disraeli (Earl Beaconsfield), 
XXV, 395. 

William E. Gladstone, XXVII, 103. 

Mirabeau, XVI, 516. 

Count Cavour, V, 237. 

Due de Broglie, IV, 324. 

Gambetta, IX, 551; XXVII, 59. 

Prince Bismarck, XXV, -485. 

Samuel Adams, I, 131. 

Thomas Jefferson, XIII, 624. 

De Witt Clinton, VI, 8. 

Albert Gallatin, X, 35. 

Andrew Jackson, XIII, 543, 

Thomas H. Benton, XXV, 430. 

Daniel Webster, XXIV, 498. 

William Lloyd Garrison, X, 78. 

Charles Sumner, XXII, 677. 

Jefferson Davis, XXVI, 365. 

Abraham Lincoln, XIV, 665. 

Charles Francis Adams, XXV, 43. 

James G. Blaine, XXV, 496. 

See also Chapters XLIV, XLVIII, and 
LVI, in this Guide, entitled, respectively. 
The Political Economist, The Lawyer', and 
The Public Speaker. 



CHAPTER XLIII 

The Candidate for Civil Service 

"I have done the State some service, and they know it." — Othello. 



The first practical steps toward what 

is designated as Civil-Service Reform 

were taken by the United 

History of gtates Cougross in 1853, when 

Service it passed an act providing for 

competitive examinations as 

the basis of appointment to any place 



in the four great classes of clerkships in 
Washington. Little further progress 
was made towards freeing the executive 
department of government from the 
abuse of official patronage until the year 
1872, when President Grant appointed a 
commission to devise rules and regula- 



154 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



lations for "admission to and continu- 
ance in the civil service of the United 
States." But the proposed reform met 
with much opposition from men who 
were interested in the continuance of 
the "spoils" system, and it was several 
years before any practical application 
of such rules and regulations could be 
made. During the administration of 
President Hayes, in 1879, the system 
of competitive examinations was made 
applicable to a few of the largest post 
offices, including the post office in New 
York. Through the persistent efforts 
of the opponents of ofiicial corruption, 
an act of Congress was passed in 1883 
providing for the appointment of three 
Civil-Service Commissioners, who should 
aid the President in prescribing rules 
for admission, by examination, into cer- 
tain branches of the civil service. This 
act further empowered the President to 
revise or modify the rules from time to 
time, thus enabling him to extend the 
system of competitive examinations as 
rapidly as in his judgment would con- 
duce to the public welfare. (See XXIX, 
370.) 

On May 9, 1896, the President extended 
the provisions of the civil-service law 
to 30,000 additional Government em- 
ployees, thus increasing the number of 
positions on the classified lists to 85,185. 

So many governmental positions being 
now obtainable, not by personal favor 
or the influence of friends, but 
by absolute proofs of ability 
to fill them, it has become the 
laudable ambition of thousands of young 
men and young women to pass the civil- 
service examinations,and thus place their 
names upon the lists of available candi- 
dates. Changes in the service are con- 
stantly taking place ; vacancies in all 
departments are of frequent occurrence. 



Examina 
tio&B 



About six thousand new appointments 
to the service of the Government are 
made every year. As a rule, the candi- 
date whose grade in examination is the 
highest is the first to be appointed. 

To pass one of these competitive exam- 
inations even creditably, the candidate 
must of course make some preparation : 

he must know what are the 

''"tanni^aa, subjects he will be examined 

Helper on, and he must study these 

subjects with special care. 
Now, it is a fact well worth noticing 
that there is no other single book in the 
world that contains so much information 
on all subjects as the Encyclopcedia Bri- 
tannica; and it is the purpose of the 
present chapter to show how the candi- 
date for any branch of the civil service 
may utilize its information so as to 
obtain therefrom much practical knowl- 
edge in preparing for the examinations. 

A. THE FEDERAL SERVICE. 

All persons who assist in conducting 

the government of the United States 

may be said' to be in the ser- 

Executive ^.^g Qf ^jjg nation. There are 

Depart- 
ment three general branches, or de- 
partments of government : 

The Legislative Department,XXVI,258. 

The Judicial Department, XXIX, 196. 

The Executive Department, XXVI, 601. 

Read the Constitution of the United 
States, XXVI, 267. 

Civil service, as generally understood, 
has reference only to service in the ex- 
ecutive department of the government. 
In this department there are also two 
other branches of service : 

The military service. See Chapter 
XLI, entitled The Soldier, in this Guide. 

The naval service. See Chapter 
XXXIX, entitled The Seaman, in this 
Guide. 



THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE 



155 



Exceptions 



By an executive order issued by the 
President, Nov. 2, 1896, the employees 
of the Navy Yard are practically in- 
cluded in the classified service. In the 
War Department, also, about 10,000 
employees are now subject to the civil- 
service regulations. Half of this number 
are employed under the Chief of Engi- 
neers in the improvement of rivers, 
harbors, and fortifications. See Chap- 
ter XXX, entitled The Engineer, in this 

GrUIDE. 

Members and employees of Congress, 
ministers, most of the foreign consuls, 
collectors of revenue, postmas- 
ters, and many others, includ- 
ing more than 100,000 persons, belong to 
the unclassified service, and are exempt 
from the civil-service regulations. It is 
of those only who are engaged in the 
classified service that we shall speak in 
this chapter. 

The classified service, for which ex- 
aminations are held, is divided into five 
distinct branches : 

(1) The Departmental Service, which 
includes ofiBcers and employees (except 
laborers and persons who have 
Divisions been nominated for confirma- 
serviee tiou) in the Several executive 
departments of the District of 
Columbia (VI, 150; XXVI, 425), the rail- 
way mail service (XXVIII, 538), the In- 
dian service (XXVII, 375), the pension 
agencies (XXVIII, 382), the steamboat 
inspection service requirements, the 
lighthouse service (XXVII, 598), the life- 
saving service (XXVII, 595), the mints 
and assay-offices (II, 633; XVI, 503), the 
revenue-cutterservice, the sub-treasuries 
of the United States (XXIX, 311), the 
engineer departments, and all officers 
and employees of the executive depart- 
ment outside of the District of Columbia 
who are employed as clerks, physicians. 



nurses, draftsmen, engineers, watchmen, 
messengers, or firemen, or who are in 
the service of the supervising Architect's 
Office, or of the Treasury Department 
(XXIX, 311). 

(2) The Custom-house service, which 
includes all officers and employees in 
any customs district whose employees 
number as many as five (VI, 643). 

(3) The Post-office service, which in- 
cludes all officers and employees in any 
free-delivery post-office. 

(4) The Government-Printing service 
and 

(5) The Internal-Revenue service, 
which includes all officers and employ- 
ees engaged in these branches of service, 
except such as have been declared not 
subject to the civil-service rules. 

To test an applicant's fitness for a posi- 
tion in any of the five branches of service 
named above, examinations 
are held under the direction 
of the commission. The ex- 
amination papers are rated on a scale of 
100 ; and 70 marks or over are considered 
as establishing the candidate's eligibility 
for appointment. But, as already ob- 
served, those who receive the first ap- 
pointments are those who stand the 
highest in the examinations. 

I. THE DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE. 

There are many positions in this ser- 
vice, the most important of which are 
the following: Clerk-copyist, messenger, 
watchman, typewriter, stenographer, 
printer's assistant, proof-reader, tele- 
graph operator, special pension exami- 
ner, State-Department clerk,bookkeeper, 
weather observer, draftsman, meat in- 
spector, fish-culturist, tagger, stock ex- 
aminer, engineer and machinist, railway 
mail -clerk, and teachers, physicians, 



Examina- 
tion Papers 



156 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



nurses, and others employed in the In- 
dian service. 

What is the character of the examina- 
tions for eligibility to these positions ? 

How can the Encydopcedia Britannica 
aid candidates who are preparing for 
these examinations? 

The clerk-copyist is examined in or- 
thography, penmanship, copying, letter- 
writing, and arithmetic. 

The examination in orthography in- 
cludes the writing of twenty or more 
difficult words from dictation by the 
examiner. The mark on penmanship is 
determined by legibility, rapidity, neat- 
ness, and general appearance. 
Copyist ^^^ ^y correctness and uni- 
formity in the formation of 
words, letters, and punctuation marks. 
In copying, the candidate is required to 
make a fair copy of a rough-draft manu- 
script, punctuating and capitalizing 
properly, and writing in full all abbre- 
viated words. (See the references to 
punctuation and capitalization in Chap- 
ter LIX, entitled The Writer, in this 
Guide ; also the lists of abbreviations 
in the Britannica, I, 31, and XXV, 17.) 
The letter-writing is intended to test 
the candidate's skill in simple English 
composition. (See Chapter LIX, entitled 
The Writer, in this Guide). In marking 
the letter, its errors in form and address 
(XXV, 46), in spelling, and in punctua- 
tion are considered. The letter must 
relate to some subject given by the 
examiners, as, for example, "The ad- 
vantages of a common-school educa- 
tion." (See Chapter LVIII, entitled The 
Teacher, in this Guide.) The examina- 
•tion in arithmetic consists of problems 
involving the fundamental principles of 
the science. (See references on page 74 
of this Guide.) 

Nearly all other competitors for em- 



Typewriter 



ployment in the departmental service 
are examined in the branches named 
above. Several, such as the 
typewriter, the stenographer, 
and the telegraph operator, are required 
to exhibit practical tests of their skill. 
(See Chapter LX, entitled The Stenog- 
rapher and Typewriter, in this Guide.) 

The pension examiner is examined 
not only in the five subjects mentioned, 
but in law and pension law. 

Sample Questions in Law. What is the 
difference between primary and second- 
ary evidence? (See VIII, 650.) 

What is marriage, and what are im- 
pediments to lawful marriage? (See 
XV, 572; XII, 415.) 

What is divorce? (See VII, 260-65.) 

For much information rela- 
^'Eiminer ^^^^ to pcusiou laws, See 
XXVIII, 382. 

The State-Department clerk is exam- 
ined in geography, history, international 
law, and government. The following 
are sample questions: 

Between what parallels and meridians 

does the United Stales extend? (See 

map, XXIII, 842; Parallels, 

Geography ^^^^^^ ^^^^ Meridians, X, 176.) 

What are the boundaries of France 
(IX, 445), of Germany (X, 401), of Ohio 
(XVII, 754), of Vermont (XXIV, 180)? 

(Study the references in Chapter XIII, 
entitled Readings in Geography, in this 
Guide.) 

What circumstances led to the war 
with Mexico? (XXIII, 805.) 

Mention the leading facts in 
the life of Franklin. (IX. 626.) 

Name the political parties in the na- 
tional election of 1860. (XXIII, 813 et 
seq.) 

(Study the Readingi^ in History, Course 
I, in Chapter VI in this Guide ; also Chap- 
ter XLII, The American Citizen.) 



History 



THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE 



157 



What is international law? (XIII, 
196; XXII, 488.) 

Give some account of the 
Interna- orififin and meaning of the 

tional Law <= o 

" Monroe doctrine." (XIII, 
198; XVI, 787; XXIII, 798; XXVIII, 125.) 
What are the rules regulating sover- 
eignty over the high seas? (XIII, 201; 
XXI, 610.) 

What are the functions and powers 
of the Secretary of State? (XXIX, 151.) 
To what extent are the vari- 
ous States of the Union sover- 



eign powers? (XXVI, 269, 



Govern- 
ment 

270.) 

What constitutes a treaty? (XXIII, 
564.) 

Study the references given in Chapter 
XLII, entitled The American Citizen, in 
this Guide. 

The observer in the weather bureau 
is examined in meteorology and physics, 
as well as in the five general branches 
previously mentioned. Some of the 
questions are similar to the follow- 
ing: 

Explain how ai barometer may be used 
in determining the height of a mountain. 
(Ill, 329; XIX, 253.) 

How are the freezing and boiling 
points of a thermometer determined? 
(XXIII, 308; XI, 502.) 
What is relative humidity, 
and how is it obtained? (HI, 30 a"; 
XII, 604.) 

See Atmosphere, III, 26, 329; X, 188, 
196; Meteorology, XVI, 119; Winds, 
XVI, 148; Temperature (Heat), XI, 495; 
Climate, VI, 3; Frost, X, 235, 248; Eain, 
XVI, 132; Snow, XVI, 159; Corona, VI, 
380; and especially Chapter XI V, entitled 
A Brief Course of Reading in Meteorology, 
in this Guide. 

What is meant by the density of a 
body and what substance is taken as 



Meteorology 



Physics 



Draftsman 



the standard of comparison? (XV, 706; 
VII, 210. 

State three laws of falling 
bodies. (XI, 60.) 

See Chapter XVI, entitled Tivo Courses 
of Reading in Physics, in this Guide, 

The topographic draftsman is exam- 
ined specially in geography, scale- 
drawing, and geographic pro- 
jections. The scale-drawing 
consists of compiling, on an enlarged 
scale, a chart, a copy of which is fur- 
nished at the time of examination. 
See Cartography, XV, 523; X, 171; Topo- 
graphic Maps, XV, 529; Drawing, VII, 
385; XV, 634, Geographic projections 
relate to the theory of polyconic and 
Mercator projections, and to instru- 
ments and appliances necessary to con- 
struct polyconic projections. See X, 
186-87. 

The meat inspector is examined in 

veterinary anatomy and physiology, in 

veterinary pathology, and in 

"^iSpection ^^^^ inspection. He may be 

asked many questions similar 

to the following: 

Name and give the situation of the 
organs which should be examined for 
the detection of tuberculosis in cattle. 
(XXIV, 220.) 

What are the symptoms of milk, or 
parturient, fever? (XXIV, 221.) 

What is pus composed of, and how does 
it appear to the naked eye? (XXII, 717.) 

What are the characteristics of good, 
sound flesh meat? (XV, 792.) 

Describe the appearance and give the 
life history of trichinae. (XVII, 335 a'; 
XXIV, 223.) 

See also Animals, II, 44; Animal Phys- 
iology, XIX, 13; Animal parasitism, 
XVIII, 262; Beef-measle, XXIII, 57; 
Poisonous, tainted, or diseased meat, 
XV, 792; Diseases of Cattle, XVII, 63, 



158 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNTUa 



Fish 
Culture 



etc. Also Chapter XXXVI, entitled The 
Stock-Raiser and Dainjman,\n this Guide. 
The fish-culturist is examined, in ad- 
dition to other subjects, in geography 
and fish-culture. The questions in ge- 
ography have reference prin- 
cipally to the United States, 
and presuppose an intimate 
knowledge of the lakes, seas, and water- 
ways of the western continent. The 
examination in fish-culture is intended 
to test the competitor's knowledge con- 
cerning the geographical distribution of 
fishes (XII, 707) ; definition and descrip- 
tion of varieties (XII, 723); methods of 
reproduction (XX, 421); conditions of 
successful fish-culture (XIX, 135; XXI, 
237) ; transport of fish (IX, 212); propa- 
gation of different species, etc. 

See Salmon, XXI, 231, 235, 237; Shad, 
XXI, 763; XII, 732; XIX, 137; Pike, XIX, 
97; Perch, XVIII, 532; Trout, XXI, 232, 
236, etc. Read the articles on Angling, 
II, 30; on Fisheries, IX, 211; on Ichthy- 
ology, XII, 666; on Aquariums, II, 189; 
etc. 

The engineer and machinist, besides 
being examined on the five general sub- 
jects, is required to answer 
questions in regard to the va- 
rious parts of an engine (XXII, 
490-553), and the construction of the 
boiler (XXII, 517); and to exhibit a 
practical knowledge of packing, repair- 
ing, and managing engines and boilers. 
See Chapter XXX, entitled The Engineer, 
in this Guide. 

The railway mail-clerk is examined 

specially in the geography of the United 

States (XIX, 595; XXIII, 824); in railway 

and other systems of transpor- 

1? oil TTTW TT 

Mall-Clerk tation in the United States ; 

and in reading addresses. 
The candidate for this examination 
will find many articles in the Britannica 



steam 
Engine 



that will be of assistance to him. See 
Chapter XL, entitled The Bailroad-Man, 
in this Guide; also 

Post Office, XIX, 578. 

International Postal Union, XIX, 601. 

Plan of U. S. postal service, XIX, 595. 

Postal Service in the United States^ 
XXVIII, 467. 

Railways in the United States, XXVIII, 
532. 

His examination in Arithmetic may 
embrace some such questions as this: 
A railway mail-clerk decided to save | 
of his salary during one year, but, in- 
stead, he saved f , and found that during 
the year he had saved $30 more than he 
had decided to save. What was his 
salary? 

The Indian Service. The examinations 
for this service are for the most part 
topical rather than textual. Instead of 
questions, the candidate is given topics 
upon which to write essays or to prepare 
lessons, and these are intended to test 
his knowledge of the subject, particu- 
larly his ability to prepare exercises for 
teaching. 

The candidate for a position as teacher 
in the Indian schools is examined in 
penmanship, orthography, ped- 
^""Sacher ^gogy, arithmetic, geometry, 
geography, natural history, 
history and government of the United 
States, drawing, American literature, 
and physiology and hygiene. 

In pedagogy he is required to write an 
essay on some practical pedagogic ques- 
tion, such as: "The advantages and 
disadvantages of periodical written ex- 
aminations in the intermediate grades 
of school work." See Chapter LVIII. 
entitled The Teacher, in this Guide. 

In arithmetic, besides solving given 
problems, he is required to write his 
opinions upon some practical teaching 



THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE 



im 



point, as : " The proper method of teach- 
ing decimal fractions to children 9 to 12 
years of age." See Chapter LVIII, en- 
titled The Teacher; also the references to 
Arithmetic in Chapter XV of this Guide. 

In geometry he is required to write an 
essay of 100 to 150 words, on some topic 
assigned. The following topic has been 
used: "The method to be pursued in 
imparting a knowledge of point, line, 
surface, and volume, to a class of pupils 
in the intermediate grade." See Geom- 
etry, p. 75, in this Guide. 

In geography, topics like the follow- 
ing are to be written on : " What plan 
would you pursue in imparting to young 
pupils a knowledge of the earth's mo- 
tions and of the location of the zones of 
climate? See Section II ("A View of the 
World") of Chapter XIII, entitled i?m(/- 
ings in Geography, in this Guide. 

In natural history, topics like the fol- 
lowing have been used : " State your 
method of imparting to advanced classes 
a knowledge of the habits, character- 
istics, etc., of the family Ovidce (sheep)." 
See XXI, 820; XV, 438. Also make use of 
Chapter XI, entitled Readings in Zoology, 
in tiiis Guide. 

In American history and government, 
the candidate is required to write an 
essay of 150 to 300 words on some such 
topic as this : " A description of the war 
•of 1812, written in a manner to interest 
€hildren." See Chapter XLII, entitled 
The American Citizen, and Chapter VI, 
entitled Three Courses of Beading in His- 
tory, in this Guide. 

In American literature the following 
topic has been used: "A method of out- 
lining and teaching American literature 
to advanced primary pupils." See Course 
the First of Chapter VII, entitled Five 
Courses of Reading in the History of Lit- 
erature, in this Guide. 



In physiology and hygiene, an essay is 
required on some such topic as this: 
" The anatomy, physiology, and hygiene 
of respiration, as you would explain them 
to a class of pupils in intermediate 
grades." See Anatomy, I, 700-800; 
Physiology, XIX, 11-50; Hygiene, XII, 
600, etc.; also Chapter L, entitled The 
Physician, in this Guide. 

The candidate for a position as phy- 
sician in the Indian service is examined 
specially in anatomy, physiol- 
^''physioian ogy,chemistry,materia medica, 
therapeutics, general pathol- 
ogy, the theory and practice of medicine, 
surgery, medical jurisprudence, toxicol- 
ogy, hygiene, and obstetrics. See Chapter 
L, entitled The Physician, in this Guide, 

Sample Questions: Describe the loca- 
tion and course of the popliteal artery. 
(I, 794b.'") 

Give the origins and attachments of 
the biceps muscle. (I, 736.) 

What is iron rust chemically? (XIII, 
285.) 

Give the differential diagnosis of ru- 
beola and scarlatina. (XV, 663; XXI, 
393; XVIII, 414.) 

What is dysentery? (VII, 505.) 

How may cicatrization be hastened 
after a burn in which the skin has been 
destroyed? (XXII, 716.) 

Give the characteristic features of 
poisoning by phosphorous. (XIX, 290.) 

The Industrial teacher and farmer in 
the Indian service must pass an exam- 
ination in penmanship, orthog- 
raphy, farm economy, keeping 
accounts, and practical farm- 
ing. In farm economy he must answer 
five questions on the care and use of the 
more common tools, mechanical appli- 
ances, etc., connected with farm work. 
See I, 276-92. In practical farming he 
must answer five questions relative to 



Indian 
Farmer 



160 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Clerk 



general farming and gardening opera- 
tions, care of live-stock, etc. See Chap- 
ters XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXVI, in this 
Guide, entitled, respectively, The Farmer, 
The Gardener, and The Stock-Raiser and 
Dairyman. 

II. THE CUSTOM-HOUSE SERVICE. 

In the Custom-house service, examin- 
ations are held for clerks, law clerks, 
day and night inspectors, inspectresses, 
messengers, weighers, gaugers, examin- 
ers, and samplers. All are examined in 
orthography, copying, penmanship, and 
arithmetic. 

The candidate for clerk is examined 
specially in the elements of the English 
language (VIII, 349; XVIII, 795, 
800); in letter-writing (see 
Chapter LIX, entitled The Writer, in this 
Guide) ; in the elements of geography 
(see Chapter XIII, entitled Readings in 
Geography, in this Guide) ; and in the 
history and government of the United 
States (see Chapter XLII, entitled The 
American Citizen, in this Guide). 

The candidate for customs law-clerk 
is' examined specially in the elements of 
the English language ; in letter-writing; 
and in law questions. See Chapter 
XLVIII, entitled The Latvyer, in this 
Guide. 

The candidate for inspector or inspect- 
ress is examined specially in the ele- 
ments of the English language, 
and in the geography of Amer- 
ica and Europe. See Chapter XIII, en- 
titled Readings in Geography, in this 
Guide. 

The candidate for gauger, examiner, 
or sampler must show his fitness for the 
position by answering practical 
and theoretical questions, and 
by performing practical tests in gaug- 
ing, etc. See Custom-houses, VI, 643. 



Inspector 



Gauger 



Gauging, XVI, 32. 
Commerce, VI, 175, 181. 
Tariff legislation, XXIX, 225. 
Imports and Exports, XVII, 254. 

III. the post-office service. 

See the following articles: 

Post Office, XIX, 595-96. 

Postal Service of the United States, 
XXVIII, 467. 

Post-Office Department, XXVIII, 470. 

Free-Delivery System, XXVIII, 468. 

Universal Postal Union, XXVIII, 469. 

The classified postal service embraces 
only clerks and carriers. To test the 
fitness of a candidate for this 
^^clrriers scrvico, examinations are pro- 
vided, which include the fol- 
lowing subjects : Orthography, copying, 
penmanship, arithmetic (fundamental 
rules, fractions, and percentage), ele- 
ments of the geography of the United 
States, local delivery, reading addresses, 
and physical tests. 

See references relating to above sub- 
jects, already given for examinations 
for the departmental service, pp. 155-56. 

IV. the government printing service. 

Candidates for any of the trades posi- 
tions in this service inust show that 
they have had five years' ex- 
perience at the particu lar trade 
for which they desire to be examined. 
The examination embraces the follow- 
ing subjects : Orthography, penmanship, 
letter- writing, arithmetic, practical ques- 
tions. See remarks on the examination 
of clerk-copyist, p. 156, of this Guide. 
Under the head of practical questions, ^ 
the candidate is required to perform 
four exercises : 

(1) Correcting proof — in the same 
manner as in ordinary proof in a print- 
ing-office. See XXIII, 747; XXVIII, 497. 



Printers 



THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE 



161 



(2) a. Writing from incorrect copy, 
correcting errors in syntax and ortliog- 
raphy, and properly punctuating and 
capitalizing. This exercise is for book 
and newspaper printers only. See 
Chapter LIX, entitled The Writer, in 
this Guide. 

(2) b. Arrangement of a title-page 
and a business card. The candidate is 
furnished with the matter, and he is re- 
quired to arrange it properly, indicating 
the size of type in which each line 
should be printed. See Chapter LXI, en- 
titled The Printer and the Publisher, in 
this Guide. This exercise is for job 
printers only. 

(3) Tabulating, or the proper arrange- 
ment of facts and figures in a table, with 
the appropriate general heading and 
box-heads. 

(4) Abbreviations. Writing out in full 
ten words for which the abbreviations 
on the sheet stand, and also giving the 
corresponding correct abbreviations for 
ten other words printed on the sheet. 
Seel, 31; XXV, 17-22. 

V. THE INTERNAL-REVENUE SERVICE. 

The classified internal-revenue service 
includes clerks, storekeepers, and gangers 
employed in the collection of internal 
revenue. To test fitness for admission 
to this service, examinations of a prac- 
tical character are provided on such 
subjects as the Commission may from 
time to time direct. 

See National Revenue, IX, 150; also 
that part of Chapter XLV, entitled The 
Banker and Financier, in this Guide, 
which refers to public finances. 

B. THE SERVICE OF A STATE. 

Civil-service rules similar to those in 

force in the executive department of the 
11 



federal government have been adopted in 
three States — in Massachusetts and Illi- 
nois by legislative enactment, 

state Laws _^ 

and in New York by consti- 
tutional amendment. As a general thing 
the requirements, the questions, and the 
tests do not differ materially from those 
prescribed for candidates for similar 
posts of duty in the national service. 
In New York nearly all the State offices 
below that of deputy and the officials 
whose relations to the head of the de- 
partment are of a fiduciary character 
are placed on the competitive list. In 
the other States the rules apply specially 
to the selection of employees in the cities 
which are included under the provisions 
of the civil-service law, and in a more 
limited manner to the appointment of 
sub-officials and assistants in the execu- 
tive department of the government. In 
Wisconsin a legislative enactment pro- 
vides for the application of civil-service 
rules in cities of the first class ; but Mil- 
waukee being the only city of that 
description, the law is inoperative else- 
where. Movements have already been 
commenced (Dec. 1896) for the introduc- 
tion of civil-service bills in the legisla- 
tures of other States, as Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, Minnesota, and Colorado. It 
is therefore probable that within a few 
years civil-service rules will be in force 
in most if not all of the State govern- 
ments. 

C. MUNICIPAL SERVICE. 

Civil-service rules have been adopted 

and are now in effect in all the cities of 

New York and Massachu- 

cities nav- gg^^g . jjj Chicago and Evans- 

service tou, 111. ; in Milwaukee, Seat- 
tle, and New Orleans; and 
to a limited extent in Louisville, K)',, 
and Portland, Me. Movements are on 



(62 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNlCA 



New York 



Chicago 



foot towards the adoption of such rules 
in many other cities, as St. Louis, San 
Francisco, Denver, Wheeling, and Gal- 
veston, Texas. 

In New York city, only deputies, pri- 
vate secretaries, and the holders of a 

few important positions are 

excepted from the application 
of these rules. Indeed, in a total of 
nearly 15,000 positions, all but about 75 
are subject to the provisions of civil- 
service laws. 

Of the other cities in which the rules 
are now in force, Chicago and Boston 

may be selected as examples. 

In Chicago the classification 
includes the following divisions : 

A. Medical service. See Chapter L, 
entitled The Physician, in this Guide. 

B. Civil engineering. See Chapter 
XXX, entitled The Engineer, in this 
Guide. 

C. Clerical service, comprising copy- 
ists, recorders, bookkeepers, stenogra- 
phers, pages, messengers, etc. 

D. Police service. See Chapter XLIX, 
entitled The Magistrate and Policeman, 
in this Guide. 

E. Electrical service. See Chapter 
XXVI, entitled The Electrician, in this 
Guide. 

F. Fire service. See XXVI, 646- 
49. 

G. Mechanical engineers — persons 
who require a knowledge of steam en- 
gines, boilers, and other machinery. See 
Chapter XXV, entitled The Machinist, and 
Chapter XVI, entitled Two Courses of 
Reading in Physics, irxthis Guide. 

H. Bridge service. 
I. Inspection service. 
J. Janitor and Elevator service. 
K. Library service. See Chapter LVII, 
entitled The Bookman, in this Guide. 
L. Labor and miscellaneous service. 



Boston 



In Boston the civil-service list includes 
nearly the same classes of workers. 
Here, besides (1) the clerical 
service, are (2) all persons do- 
ing police duty in prisons, reformatories, 
and other public institutions of the 
State and city ; (3) members of the fire 
department ; (4) members of the police 
department doing permanent duty ; (5) 
engineers and drawtenders ; (6) foremen 
and sub-foremen of laborers ; (7) in- 
spectors of work; (8) engineers and 
janitors employed in school buildings; 
(9) truant oflBcers ; and several others. 

The questions for examination in the 
various cities relate to about the same 
branches and are of about the same 
grade of difficulty as those used in ex- 
aminations for the national service. A 
few examples will suffice. 

Candidates for health inspector are 
asked questions on contagious diseases 
(XVIII, 411); on fumigation and purifi- 
cation, deodorants, and disinfectants 
(VII, 224; XII, 603, etc.). 

Candidates for the similar position of 
medical inspector are supposed to be 
the possessors of medical di- 
plomas, and to have had some 
experience in hospital practice. 
They may be asked to name all the in- 
fectious diseases that may become epi- 
demic in certain localities ; to describe 
bacteria (XXI, 415); to state methods 
for the suppression of tuberculosis 
(XVIII, 415, 869, etc.); to give the diag- 
nosis and treatment of diphtheria, etc. 

To such candidates the references 
given in Chapter L, entitled 21ie Phy- 
sician, in this Guide, will be of no little 
interest. 

The candidate who aspires to the posi- 
tion of assistant engineer is examined, 
among other things, on his knowledge 
of the various systems of sewerage (XXI, 



Examina 
tions 



THE POLITICAL ECONOMIST 



163 



745; IV, 418, etc.); of coffer-dams (VI, 
104); of the construction of pavements; 
of masonry; of piling (IV, 294); of 
waterworks, etc. See Chapters XXIX 
and XXX, in this Guide, entitled The 
Builder and The Engineer. 

Applicants for positions in the detect- 
ive force of district police, besides being 
examined in writing and the elementary 
English branches, are asked questions 
relative to crime, the detection of crim- 
inals, legal papers, and methods of 
procedure in criminal cases. See the 
references in Chapter XLIX, in this 
Guide, entitled The Magistrate and Police- 
man. 

Men wishing to be employed as driv- 
ers in the fire service or in any other 
service of the city, may be examined as 
to their knowledge concerning the proper 
care of horses, the diseases of horses, 



the shoeing of horses, etc. See refer- 
ences in Chapter XXXVI, entitled The 
Stock-Raiser and Dairyyna^i. 

Candidates for positions in public li- 
braries are examined upon their ac- 
quaintance with general literature and 
periodical literature, and their general 
knowledge of books. See Chapters VII 
and LVII, entitled Five Courses of Read- 
ing in the History of Literature and The 
Bookman, in this Guide. 

Enough has now been said to point 
out the way whereby the candidate for 
a position in any department of the civil 
service may so utilize the vast store of 
information in the Encyclopcedia Br'itan- 
nica as to make it a convenient and use- 
ful aid in his efforts to prepare himself 
for the ordeal of examination, no matter 
in what branch or under what division 
of the service. 



CHAPTER XLIV 



The Political Economist 

" This is that noble Science of Politics, which is equally removed 
from the barren theories of utilitarian sophists, and from the petty craft 
so often mistaken for statesmanship by minds grown narrow in habits 
of intrigue, jobbing, and official etiquette — which, of all sciences, is 
the most important to the welfare of nations — which, of all sciences, 
most tends to expand and invigorate the mind — which draws nutri- 
ment and ornament from every part of philosophy and literature, and 
dispenses in return nutriment and ornament to all."^ — Macaulay. 



Political 
Economy 



Political Economy, in its historical 
aspects, is the subject of an important 
article by J. K. Ingram, in 
the nineteenth volume of the 
Encyclopcedia Britannica. The 
earliest expressions of thought on eco- 
nomic subjects have come down to us 
from the Oriental theocracies, and of 
these Mr. Ingram gives an interesting 
account in XIX, 360. This is followed 



by a survey of Greek and Roman notions 
of economics, with a full exposition of 
Plato's ideal system. 

The economy of the Middle Ages is 
described at length (pp. 364-66), with 
some notice of the origin of trade cor- 
porations, and their influence upon the 
industrial forces of those early times. 
The three successive phases of modern 
economics are then treated with great 



164 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



fulness (pp. 366-415). This latter and 
larger part of Mr. Ingram's article may 
be read by sections, with collateral ref- 
erences to other articles, as follows: 

First Modern Phase — Transitional, 
XIX, 367. 

Second Modern Phase — Mercantile, 
XIX, 367-71; Copernicus, VI, 307; Sir 
William Temple, XXIII, 187; John Locke, 
XIV, 758. 

Third Modern Phase — Natural Lib- 
erty, XIX, 371-415. 

1. Wealth and Currency. Adam 
Smith, XXII, 179; his "Wealth of Na- 
tions," XIX, 377-83. 

Wealth in economics, XXIV, 487. 

Capital, V, 64. 

Money, XVI, 746; depreciation of cur- 
rency, IX, 156 a.' 

Bullion, IV, 464-65. 

Exchange, VIII, 686-96. 

Silver, XXII, 76-81. 

Coinage Laws, XXVI, 228. 

Crime of 1873, XXVI, 309. 

Finances of the United States, XXVI, 
640. 

Jeremy Bentham, III, 496. 

Locke on money, XIV, 760; Ricardo 
on money, XX, 548. See also the refer- 
ences to money in Chapter XLV, entitled 
The Banker and Financier. 

2. Banks AND Banking. See especially 
Chapter XLV, in this Guide, entitled 
The Banker and Financier ; also Savings- 
banks, XXI, 342; Banking in the United 
States, XXV, 344; and Savings-banks in 
the United States, XXIX, 8. 

3. Population. Population considered 
in its statical and dynamical aspects, 
XIX, 527. 

The Malthusian theory, XIX, 384; 
Thomas Malthus, XV, 346. 



Immigration into the United States, 

XXVII, 364. 

4. Taxation. See the special article 
on Taxation, XXIII, 91. 

Ricardo, XX, 547. 

Taxation and protection, IX, 663; 

XXVIII, 503. 

Henry George, XXVII, 78. 
Income tax, XXVII, 369. 
Inheritance tax, XXVII, 388. 
Single tax, XXIX, 97. 
See other references, page 169. 

5. Pauperism. See Poor-Laws, XIX, 
476; XXVIII, 457. 

Elizabeth Fry, IX, 706-07. 

Robert Owen, XVIII, 90. 

English Poor-law Parish, XVIII, 302. 

Poor-law Relief, XIX, 482, 488. 

English Charities, V, 348. 

Charity Organization, XXVI, 114. 

See also Chapter LV, entitled The 
Philanthropist and Reformer, in this 
Guide. 

6. Labor and Wages. Special article 
on Labor, XIV, 166; special article on 
Wages, XXIV, 326. 

Lassalle, XIV, 320. 

Industrial Condition of Women, 
XXVII, 384. 

Apprenticeship, II, 185. 

Guilds, XI, 230. 

See also Chapter XXXI, in this Guide, 
entitled The Laborer. 

7. Cooperation. Communism, VI, 188; 
Socialism, XXII, 216; Cooperation,VI,300. 

Oneida Community, XVII, 794. 

Amish, or Ammanite Community, 
XXV, 175. 

Brook Farm Association for educa- 
tion and agriculture, XX, 582. 

The Community at Economy, XXVI, 
486. 

Shakers, XXI, 773. 



THE BANKER AND FINANCIER 



165 



Fourier, IX, 432. 
Saint-Simon, XXI, 207. 
Robert Owen, XVIII, 90. 
Plato's Republic, VI, 189. 
Sociological conceptions of Comte, 
VI, 210. 

Modern Clubs, VI, 40. 
Poor-laws, XXVIII, 457. 
Anarchism, XXV, 181. 

8. Taeiff. See the special article. 
Free Trade, IX, 661. 
Custom duties, VI, 643. 
Protection, XXVIII, 503. 
Tariff, XXIX, 225. 
Warehousing, XXIX, 483. 



9. Political Economists. A few fa- 
mous economists not named above: 

Benjamin Franklin, IX, 626. 

John Stuart Mill, XVI, 320. 

John E. Cairnes, IV, 570. 

Walter Bagehot, XIX, 410. 

Arnold Toynbee, XIX, 412. 

Harriet Martineau, XV, 590. 

Nassau Senior, XXI, 695. 

Henry C. Carey, XXVI, 61. 

Edward Atkinson, XXV, 286. 

David A. Wells, XXIX, 520. 

Francis A. Walker, XXIX, 471. 

For further references, see Chapter 
XLII, entitled The American Citizen, in 
this Guide. 



CHAPTER XLV 
The Banker and Financier 

"Seest thou a man diligent in business ? He shall stand before 
kings." — Proverbs of Solomon. 



IN THIS chapter it is proposed to point 
out a few of the articles in the Bjntannica 
whichrelate to thejiindred topics, money 
and banking, with a brief notice of na- 
tional finance. 

I. money. 

In the earliest ages of the world all 
business was carried on, and all men's 
needs were satisfied, by trad- 
ing, or barter. The man who 
had wheat and wanted beef 
had to find some one who had a cow and 
was willing to exchange her for his 
grain. See VI, 175. But this method 
was so inconvenient that men finally 
began to try to find something that 
would serve as a medium of exchange. 



The First 
Money 



Different races, peoples, and tribes tried 
different mediums. 

The Greeks used cattle, VI, 176; 

The Chinese used iron, copper, and 
tea, XVI, 749; 

Salt was used in Mexico, XVI, 749; 

Tobacco was used by the colonists of 
Virginia, XVI, 749; the Indians used 
wampum, XXIX, 477. 

Cowry shells were used in some mari- 
time countries, VI, 474, 675; 

And in other countries various other 
articles were used, XVI, 749. 

But whatever the article may have 
been, it was money, and was so called. 
Why? What is money? See XVI, 746. 
What are the causes which determine 
the value of money? See XVI, 747. 



166 



GUIDE TO THE BRTTANNICA 



Coins 



Why were these ancient forms of 
money unsatisfactory ? Why were 
metals preferable? and when were they 
first used for money? See XVI, 749. 

Why was iron unsatisfactory? 

Why were silver and gold finally 
selected? What are the special ad- 
vantages of these two metals? See 
XVI, 749-50. 

What is coinage? See XVI, 750; 
XXVI, 223. 

The science of coins is called Numis- 
matics. See the long and very interest- 
ing article on that subject, 
XVII, 643-80. Here under dis- 
tinct headings are chapters on the his- 
tory of Greek coins (p. 646); of Roman 
coins (p. 669); of mediaeval and modern 
coins (p. 672); and of Oriental coins 
(p. 677). See also Coins of the United 
States, XXVI, 224. 

The substance to be used in coinage 
having been determined upon, the next 
thing was to select a standard 
unit of value. Every country 
naturally adopted a standard of its own. 
In England this standard is the pound 
sterling. In France it is the franc; see 
XVI, 756. In the United States it is the 
dollar; see XXVI, 223. 

What are the standards of other coun- 
tries ? And what are the principal gold 
and silver coins used in the countries of 
the world? See XVI, 758-59. 

How are coins made? A complete 
description of the processes employed 
in the making of gold and 
silver coins may be found in 
the article entitled Mints, XVI, 503-14. 
In this article there is also a concise 
and very interesting history of the 
methods of coinage in various nations 
from the earliest stages of civilization 
to the present time. See also United 
States Mint, XXVIII, 109. 



standards 



Mints 



Sixteen 
to One 



Since the coins of a country consist 
of two metals, gold and silver, how shall 
the ratio of one to the other be fixed? 
In other words, of how much more value 
is a certain quantity of gold, by weight, 
than an equal quantity of silver? This 
brings us to a consideration of the rela- 
tive values of the two metals. Read 
what is said about the conflict of stand- 
ards, XVI, 761-65, which you will find 
to be a masterly presentation of the 
whole subject. 

In the United States the first Congress 
fixed the ratio at 15 to 1; that is, it 
was decided that fifteen pounds 
of silver should be considered 
worth as much as one pound 
of gold. A complete history of the coin- 
age laws of this country since that time, 
written by ex-Senator John Sherman, 
may be found in XXVI, 223. Used as 
money, gold has some advantages which 
silver has not, and silver has some ad- 
vantages which gold has not. This 
matter is carefully discussed in XVI, 749. 

The reader of ex-Senator Sherman's 
article will find that the ratio of the 
two metals did not long remain at 15 
to 1. Silver becoming more and more 
plentiful all the time, it followed the 
inevitable law of demand and supply, 
and became cheaper and cheaper until 
finally it took sixteen ounces of silver 
to buy one ounce of gold. 

Did the ratio stay at 16 to 1? It 
would have done so if silver had not 
continued to become more and more 
plentiful. This whole question is ably 
discussed in XVI, 762-65, and in ex-Sen- 
ator Sherman's article. See also the 
"Crimeof 1873," XXVI, 309. 

As to the relative increase in the 
world's annual product of gold and sil- 
ver, see XVI, 757-61; XXII, 80. Read 
also the article on Bullion, IV, 464, and 



THE BANKER AND FINANCIER 



167 



Banks 



the chapter on the economic production 
of the precious metals, XVI, 754-56. 
See also the account of the Monetary 
Conference of 1892, XXIX, 370. 

II. BANKING. 

In its simplest form a bank is an in- 
stitution where money may be deposited 
for safe-keeping. See the history of the 
origin of banking, HI, 273-74. 

But banks usually lend money as well 
as receive it; and their profits accrue 
from the excess of the interest 
received over that which is 
paid out. See the following articles: 

Interest, XIII, 194. 

Interest in the United States, XXVII, 
392. 

How interest is calculated, II, 470. 

Usury, XXIV, 22. 

American laws on usury, XXVII, 393. 

When money is deposited in a bank 
on a current, or drawing account, the 
customer may draw it out, as he re- 
quires, by means of orders called 
cheques. See Cheques, V, 506. 

Bankers also undertake the business 
of collecting money for cheques, bills, 
and other securities which they have 
received from their customers. The 
labor of collection is much facilitated 
by means of bills of exchange. See the 
following articles: 

Exchange, VIII, 686. 
Bills of exchange, HI, 582. 

Rates of exchange, XXIV, 58. 

Interest on bills of exchange, VIII, 
692. 

In England bills of exchange are made 
payable in London. In the United 
States every country banker has a cor- 
respondent in one of the banks of New 
York. The common centre of exchange, 
established by the bankers of these 
cities to further facilitate this branch 



Exdiange 



of their business, is called a clearing- 
house. See the following: 

Clearing-house, HI, 283. 
Clearing- Loudou Bank Clearing- 

house ° 

house, I, 86. 

Clearing-house in New York, etc., 
XXVI, 193. 

Clearing-house certificates, XXVI, 194. 

Modern banking originated with the 
money-dealers of Florence, Italy, as 
early as the 12th century. See III, 273- 

It was introduced into England by the 
goldsmiths of London, in the 17th cen- 
tury. See Bank of England, III, 273-76. 

A history of banking in the United 
States is given in a very ably written 
article in XXV, 344. Another article on 
the same subject, giving an account of 
the rise of state banks and their trans- 
formation into national banks, is found 
in III, 292-94. Still other interesting 
historical information on this subject is 
given in XXIII, 790, 800. See also: 

Paper currency in the United States, 
XXIII, 801. 

Greenbacks, XXIII, 823. 
united^ Bank-notes, XXV, 348. 

Currency Legal tender, XXVII, 571. 

Banking system of the United 
States, III, 292. 

Greenback Party, XXVII, 164. 

With the development of commerce 
and the increase of exchange the busi- 
ness of banking has been variously 
subdivided. The different classes of 
bankers are distinguished from one an- 
other by differences in the rules which 
they observe in the management of 
their business. Hence arise the differ- 
ent classes of banks. 

(1) Banks of deposit, III, 283. 
The article on Bank Vaults, 
XXV, 351, is an interesting 
description of the latest improved 
burglar-proof vaults. 



Classes of 
Banks 



168 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



(2) Land-mortgage banks, III, 283. 
See also XVI, 875; XXIII, 634. Mort- 
gage on land, XIV, 266, 270. 

(3) Credit companies, or credit banks: 
In Germany, VI, 191, 301. Credit Fon- 
cier and Credit Mobilier, VI, 493. 

(4) Discount banks. III, 283. See also 
Brokers, IV, 325; Brokers in America, 
XXV, 605; Accommodation Paper, 
XXV, 36. 

(5) Banks of issue — national banks 
(XXV, 345), state banks, etc. See Bank- 
note, or Bank-bill, XXV, 348; United 
States Bank, XXIX, 399; Banking sys- 
tem of the United States, III, 292; XXV, 
344-48; Bank-note Manufacture, XXV, 
348. 

(6) Savings-banks, XXI, 342. 
Post-office savings-banks, XIX, 588. 
Savings-banks in the United States, 

XXIX, 8. 

Law of savings-banks, XXIX, 9. 

In order that the genuineness of the 
coins of a government or of its paper 
currency may be preserved, stringent 
laws have been passed in most coun- 
tries for the prevention of counterfeit- 
ing and the punishment of counterfeiters. 
See XXVI, 295. 

The influence of the Stock Exchange 
upon the financial stability of the coun- 
try will be better understood 
^^Exchange ^-f^or reading the article on 
Stock Exchange in XXII, 585. 
See also Account, I, 86; Bulls and Bears, 
I, 87 a." 

For accounts of the great financial 
crises that have occurred at various 
times, see Banking, III, 276; XXV, 347- 
48; and Panics, XXVIII, 325. 

Some of the most famous bankers of 
the world deserve to be noticed here. 



A study of the methods by which they 

acquired preeminence and wealth may 

help to a clearer understand- 

^^Bankers ^^^ ^^ ^^^ busiucss principles 
that are at the basis of success 
in every enterprise. 

The greatest banking and mercantile 
houses in Europe in the 14th century 
were the Bardi and Peruzzi of Florence. 
See III, 273. 

William Paterson, the chief projector 
of the Darien scheme and of the Bank 
of England, XVIII, 364. 

John Law, the originator of the Mis- 
sissippi scheme, XIV, 367-69. 

The Rothschilds have long been known 
as the greatest family of bankers in the 
world, XXI, 7; XXVIII, 622. 

An American banker, whose name 
should always be mentioned with rever- 
ence, because of his great services to 
our country, was Robert Morris of 
Pennsylvania, XVI, 873. 

Other famous bankers and financiers 
might be named, such as: 

Turgot, XXIII, 668-70. 

The Barings, XXV, 360. 

Salmon P. Chase, V, 377. 

Jay Cooke, XXVI, 275. 

Baroness Burdett-Coutts, XXV, 648. 

Lyman J. Gage, XXVII, 53. 

Hetty R. Green, XXVII, 162. 

Baron Hirsch, the Jewish philanthro- 
pist, XXVII, 295. 

Sir John Lubbock, XXVII, 640. 

The Morgans, XXVIII, 137. 

In connection with these studies, see 
also: 
Pawnbroking, XXVIII, 365. 
Pledge, XIX, 231. 
Broker, IV, 325. 

Safe-deposit Companies, XXVIII, 641, 
Payments, XVIII, 451. 
Legal Tender, XXVII, 571. - 



THE BANKER AND FINANCIER 



169 



III. PUBLIC FINANCE. 

In Great Britain, the Bank of Eng- 
land transacts the whole business of 
government. " She acts," says 
^ E?g?and ^^^^ Smith, " not only as an 
ordinary bank, but as a great 
engine of state. She receives and pays 
the greater part of the annuities (see 
II, 64) which are due to the creditors of 
the nation; she circulates exchequer 
bills (see IX, 159; XI, 345); and she ad- 
vances to the Government the annual 
amount of the land and malt taxes, 
which are frequently not paid till some 
years after." This bank, therefore, oc- 
cupies a place of very great importance 
in the finance of Great Britain. 

But before going further let us define 
finance. By the finances of a country 
we generally understand the 
^Finance ^^J^ ^^^ means by which the 
expenditures of government, 
local and national, are met. Under this 
head, therefore, all methods of taxation 
are to be considered. 

The most ancient forms of finance 
were taxes on produce, IX, 150. See 

Taxation in Athens, IX, 150; in Rome, 
IX, 152. 

English exchequer, VIII, 268; history 
of, IX, 153. 

Finance a science in England, IX, 
158. 

Land taxes in England, IX, 159. 

Taxation of the American Colonies, 
IX, 162. 

The English Stamp Act, VIII, 320; 
XXIII, 784. 

Income tax in Great Britain, IX, 
164-65. 

Tariff legislation, XXIX, 225. 

The corn laws, IX, 165; VI, 362; their 
repeal, VI, 79, 183; XVIII, 467. 



Taxation 



Notorious financial schemes: South 
Sea bubble, IX, 160; John Law's Missis- 
sippi scheme, XIV, 367; IX, 515; XV, 24; 
schemes of Baron von Goertz, XXVII, 
114. 

History of taxation in England, IX, 
152-67. 

After having read the foregoing arti- 
cles, we are prepared for the article on 
Taxation, XXIII, 91, where we 
shall find an analysis of the 
economical theory in accordance with 
which taxation is shown to be just and 
equitable, or unjust and oppressive. 
Here, also, are considered the various 
species of taxes: 

Direct taxes, and indirect, XXIII, 93. 

Taxes on rent, XXIII, 93. 

Taxes on profits, XXIII, 94. 

Taxes on capital, XXIII, 94; see also 
Pitt's income tax, IX, 163; income tax 
in the United States, XXVII, 369. 

Taxes on wages, XXIII, 95; see Wages, 
XXIV, 326. 

Tax sales, XXIX, 230. 

Taxes on commodities, XXIII, 95. 
This leads us to a consideration of ex- 
port and import duties. Read, there- 
fore, the article on Free Trade, IX, 
661-70 — a masterly presentation of the 
whole question as viewed from a British 
standpoint. Then follow with 

Finances of the United States, XXVI, 
640. 

Treasury Department of the United 
States, XXIX, 311. 

Taxation and protection, IX, 663. 

Protection in the United States, 
XXIII, 751, 788; XXVIII, 503. 

Warehousing, XXIX, 483. 

History of tariff laws, XXIX, 225. 

The monetary problem, XXIX, 376. 

The other side of this subject of pub- 



170 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



lie finance relates to expenditures and 
the national debt. A number 

National ^^ valuable articles are pre- 
sented for consideration: 
National debt, XVII, 249. 



Debt of the United States, XXIII, 823; 
XXVI, 374. 

Receipts and expenditures of the 
United States, XXIX, 398. 

Debts of various nations, XXVI, 376. 



CHAPTER XLVI 



The Merchant and Trader 

"I will buy with you, sell with you." — Merchant of Venice. 
" Many times the reading of a book has made the fortune of a man 
— has decided his way of life." — li. W. Emerson. 



Commerce, in its broadest signification, 
is trafiic in goods. This traffic may be 
on a large scale or a small 
scale; it may be conducted 
entirely within one's own country or it 
may extend to foreign lands. To the 
merchant who is engaged in such traffic, 
the Enajclopa'dia Britannica affords in- 
formation which it would be difficult 
for him to obtain from any other source. 
In the first place, there is no commodity 
in which he deals that it does not fully 
describe. If his specialty is dry goods, 
he has but to turn to the Britannica to 
learn all about silk, XXII, 61; satin, 
XXIV, 491; calico, VI, 433; gingham, X, 
539; woolens, XXIV, 687; thread, VI, 446; 
and the hundreds of other articles on his 
shelves. If he is a grocer, he 
may learn with equal facility 
all about coffee, VI, 100; tea, XXIII, 104; 
spices, XIX, 106; sugar, XXII, 655; and the 
numberless commodities of his trade. 
And so, no matter what department of 
merchandise may be his, he will find 
that the pages of the Britannica are 
teeming with information for him. It 
is unnecessary for the Guide to specify 
further in this direction. Any desired 
article having reference to the various 



Groceries 



History of 
Commerce 



kinds of merchandise may be readily 
found by consulting the Index volume. 
It is rather with the general features of 
trading or of commerce that we propose 
to deal in this chapter. 

Every merchant (and thousands of 
people who are not merchants) will be 
attracted by the very inter- 
esting article on Commerce 
in the sixth volume of the 
Britannica. This article is largely his- 
torical in character, and embraces, 
among other topics, the following: 

Antiquity of commerce, p. 176. 

Free trade in Great Britain, p. 183. 

Tariffs, p. 181. 

Increase of International trade, p. 182. 

As to the antiquity and history of 
commerce, we may learn still more by 
referring to the section on Commerce 
and Industry, VIII, 543, and to the sec- 
tions relating to trade under the heads 
of Arabia, Phoenicia, etc. 

For additional information concern- 
ing free trade and tariffs, together with 
a full discussion of the ques- 
tions relating to them, see the 
following articles: 

Free Trade, IX, 661; VI, 183; XIX, 
403 a. 



Free Trade 



THE MERCHANT AND TRADER 



171 



Peotection, XXVIII, 503. 
Tariff, XXIX, 225-27. 
Customs Duties, VI, 643. 
Colonial System, XXVI, 235. 
The Mercantile System, IX, 662 a'"; 
XIX, 367-71. 

For the history and present status of 
international trade, see the section re- 
lating to trade under the head of each 
country. For example: 

Trade of Algeria, I, 498. 

Trade of Arabia, II, 213. 

Trade of Argentina, II, 436. 

Trade of Austria, III, 105, etc. 

See also Imports and Exports, XVII, 
254. 

Foreign Commerce of the United 
States, XXIX, 377. 

Reciprocity and retaliation, XXIX, 377. 

In any system of commerce the ques- 
tion of transportation is an important 
factor. This is clearly illus- 
^«on^°^*^" t^^ted in the chapter relating 
to defective conditions of com- 
merce in the ancient world, VI, 177. 

Transportation by means of camels 
in caravans (V, 74) is the most ancient 
method known to us. Transportation 
by boats, along rivers and the shores of 
inland gulfs and seas, dates also from a 
very early period (XXI, 840). See such 
articles as 

Ancient and mediaeval ships, 
XXI, 840. 

Modern ships, XXI, 845. 

Shipping of the United States, XXIX, 
79. 

Whaleback steamers, XXIX, 532. 

Notice the references in Chapter 
XXXIX, entitled The Seaman, in this 
Guide. 

Water transportation in modern times 
has been vastly facilitated by artificial 
waterways called canals. The Britannica 



Ships 



Canals 



contains a variety of chapters relative 
to these highways of trade. 

Canals, an historical and de- 
scriptive article, IV, 691. 

Ship canals, IV, 695. 

History of canals and canal-construc- 
tion — a valuable article, fully up to 
date, XXVI, 40-46. 

The Panama Canal, XVIII, 213; 
XXVIII, 322. 

The Nicaragua Canal, IV, 701; XXVIII, 
243. 

The Suez Canal, XXII, 653. 

The St. Lawrence Canal, XXI, 188. 

The Erie Canal, XXVI, 586. 

Statistics of canals in the United 
States, XXVI, 45. 

Shipping, United States laws, XXIX, 
79. 

Shipping on the Great Lakes, XXIX, 79. 

Commerce on Deep Waterways, XXIX, 
502. 

But by far the most important method 
of transportation is that by railroads; 
and here we must refer the 
reader to Chapter XL in this 
Guide, entitled The Railroad Man. 

In connection with this same topic of 
transportation, there are certain related 
subjects which are of practical interest 
to the trader or merchant. We men- 
tion only a few: 

Carrier, V, 122. 

Common carrier (in the United States) 
and his liabilities, XXVI, 72. 

Charter-party, shipping contract, V, 
375. 

Freight and freight-carriers, XXVII, 35. 

Grain elevators, XXVII, 136. 

Bill of lading. III, 582; XXV, 477. 

TOPICS OF TRADE. 

Other subjects of a more or less prac- 
tical character are constantly claiming 
the attention of every man of business. 



Railroads 



172 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



The Encyclopcedia Britannica discusses 
all these subjects in a lucid and com- 
prehensive manner, thus answering 
many diflBcult questions, and giving 
much information that cannot be found 
elsewhere. Here are some of the topics: 

Account, I, 86; XXV, 36. 

Adjustment, I, 141. 

Agent, I, 250. 

Arbitrage, II, 273. 

Average, III, 127. 

Bill of credit, XXV, 477. 

Bill of exchange, XXV, 477. 

Bill of sale, III, 583. 

Company, VI, 197. 

Contraband, VI, 284. 

Exchange, VIII, 686. 

Excise, VIII, 697. 

Insurance, XIII, 167. See Chapter 
XLVII in this Guide, entitled The In- 
surance Agent. 

Partnership, XXVIII, 341. 

Trade-marks, XXIII, 530; XXVIII, 359. 

Corn trade, VI, 366. 

Cotton trade, VI, 432. 

Silk trade, XXII, 71. 

Chambers of Commerce, XXVI, 106. 

Commercial Law, XXVI, 243. 

Commercial Museum of Philadelphia, 
XXVI, 243. 

Trusts, XXIII, 633; XXIX, 326. 

Business Colleges, XXV, 659. 

Mercantile Agency, XXVIII, 71. 

Mercantile Law, XXVIII, 72. 

Laws affecting merchant seamen, 
XXI, 635. 

Trade-unions, XXIII, 530. 

History of money, VI, 175, cowry 
shells used for money, VI, 474. See 



Money 



Chapter XLV in this Guide, entitled 
The Banker and Financier. 

FAMOUS COMPANIES AND MERCHANTS. 

The following subjects are also of 
more than passing interest to persons 
engaged in mercantile pursuits: 

Merchants of the Steelyard, London. 
XXII, 556. 

The Company of Merchant Adventur- 
ers, XXI, 865 b.'" 

South Sea Company, VI, 197. 

John Law and the Mississippi scheme, 
IX, 515; XIV, 367. 

Hudson's Bay Company, XII, 347. 

East India Company, II, 613; X, 166; 
XXVI, 480. 

Dutch East India Company, X, 166. 

For reading in leisure hours there are 
few subjects more interesting than the 
lives of famous men who have 
achieved success in their re- 
spective callings. There have 
been many great merchants whose biog- 
raphies are well worth perusal. Read 
the accounts given in the Britamiica, ol 

Sir Richard Whittington, " thrice lord 
mayor of London," XXIV, 587. 

Sir Thomas Gresham, founder of the 
Royal Exchange, London, XI, 166. 

John Jacob Astor, the great fur mer- 
chant of America, II, 644. 

Stephen Girard, the merchant philan- 
thropist of Philadelphia, X, 554. 

Robert Morris, the American patriot, 
XVI, 873. 

George Peabody , merchant and philan- 
thropist, XVIII, 452. 



Leisure 
Reading 



CHAPTER XLVII 

The Insurance Agent 



" He commands us to provide and give great gifts." — Timon of Athens. 



Definition 



Insurance is the term applied to any 
organized method of providing against 
pecuniary losses from fire, ship- 
wreck, accidents to the per- 
son, or premature death. Insurance is 
usually conducted by a company or cor- 
poration having ample means, which 
guarantees the insured, under certain 
conditions and to a specified extent, 
against loss from one or other of these 
contingencies. The business of insur- 
ance is very extensive, employing a vast 
amount of capital, and engaging the 
services of great numbers of men in 
every civilized country in the world. It 
is evident that to be a successful mana- 
ger, or agent in any capacity, for an in- 
surance company, a person must not 
only possess a fair business education, 
but he must know a good deal about the 
history, objects, and internal methods 
and economy of the special business in 
which he proposes to engage. No other 
single publication in the world con- 
tains more well-digested information on 
these subjects than is to be found in the 
Encyclopcedia Britannica. 

A general history of insurance in its 
different branches is contained in 'the 
article Insurance, XIII, 167-94. 

Other topics with which every mana- 
ger or agent will wish to make himself 
acquainted are as follows: 

Company, VI, 197; XVIII, 335. 

Corporation, VI, 382. 
Contracts, VI, 286; XXI, 215. 



Partnership contracts, XVIII, 335. 
Interest, XIII, 194; calculation of, II, 
470. 
%"pil Premium, XIII, 169. 

Commission, II, 470, 
Warranty, XXIV, 393. 
Assignment, 11, 637. 

Fire Insurance, XIII, 168-75. 

Fire Insurance in the United States, 

XXVI, 649. 

Fire 

Fire insurance in Great Brit- 
ain, XIII, 170. 

Insurance companies in Canada, XIII, 
174. 

National Board of Underwriters in 
the United States, XIII, 174. 

Marine Insurance, XIII, 190-94, 
History of marine insurance. III, 127. 
Marine Insurance in the 
United States, XXVIII, 29. 
Average in maritime commerce. III, 
127. 
Average in marine insurance, XIII,193. 
Lloyd's marine insurance, XIV, 747, 

Life Insurance, XIII, 175-90. 

Life Insurance in the United States, 

XXVII, 592. 
Annuities, II, 64. 

Endowments, XIII, 175. 

Expectation, or mathematical proba- 
bility, XIX, 795. 

Longevity, XIV, 868. 

Tables of mortality, XIII, 175. 

Average death-rate in different coun- 
tries, XIX, 531. 

(173) 



Marine 



Life 



174 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Causes of death, XVII, 705. 
As to suicide, XIII, 186; XXII, 662. 
The bonus system, XIII, 184. 
The Tontine system, IX, 158; XIII, 190. 
Lorenzo Tonti, XXIII, 472. 
Non-forfeiture laws in the United 
States, XIII, 189. 

Accident or Casualty Insurance, 
XIII, 168. 

Accident Insurance in the United 
States, XXV, 34. 

Minor forms of insurance, XIII, 168. 



Societies 



Friendly Societies, IX, 685. 

Cooperation, VI, 300. 

Mutual-benefit orders, IX, 687, 
Collecting societies, IX, 687. 

Mutual-Benefit Societies in the United 
States, XXV, 424. 

Fraternal societies, XXV, 425. 

Oddfellows, XVII, 687; XXV, 425. 

Order of Foresters, IX, 687; XXV, 425. 

See also, in this Guide, Chapters 
XXIV, XLV, and XLVIII, entitled The 
Mechanic, The Banker and Financier, and 
The Lawyer. 



CHAPTER XLVIII 
The Lawyer 

" Points more than all the lawyers in Bohemia can learnedly handle." 

— A Winter's Tale. 



Who is there who does not need to 
know something about law ? It is, of 
course, not to be presumed that every 
man can be his own lawyer, for there 
are times when the advice and assist- 
ance of trained members of the legal 
profession are indispensable. Never- 
theless, there are certain legal terms 
and processes with which every person 
ought to be familiar. Questions are 
constantly arising concerning various 
matters connected with the operation 
and enforcement of the laws, and it 
frequently happens that much depends 
upon one's ability to answer these ques- 
tions readily and correctly. You might 
not deem it worth your while to con- 
sult a professional lawyer about such 
matters, and yet, if you should have a 
book at hand to which you could turn 
at once for the desired information, you 



A Law 
Library 



would not remain in ignorance concern- 
ing them. 

The man who has a law library, how- 
ever small, has oftentimes no little 
advantage over the man who 
has neither the library nor the 
legal education. The Encyclo- 
pcedia Britannica is itself, within certain 
limits, an extensive library of legal lore, 
wherein every important subject con- 
nected with this branch of knowledge 
receives appropriate attention. To the 
man of business it is better than a law 
library, because he can refer to it so 
much more readily. Then, too, its arti- 
cles have none of that redundant verbi- 
age which so often makes the ordinary 
law-book so tiresome and unsatisfactory. 
They crystallize the topics ; they show 
the gift of brilliant minds in making 
principles clear above everything else. 



THE LAWYER 



175 



To the young man who is desirous of 
following the profession of law as the 

business of his life, these ar- 
^^sTudents ticlos are worth many times 

the cost of a set of the Bri- 
tannica. The student who makes him- 
self thoroughly familiar with all these 
articles in their proper sequence will 
know more law than many a graduate 
from our law colleges. Almost any man 
of intelligence, by following the courses 
of reading here indicated, may lay the 
foundation for a successful legal career. 

I. INTRODUCTORY. 

Read the special article on Legal 
Education in the United States, XX VII, 
569. Then, keeping well in mind the 
points therein mentioned, study the arti- 
cle on Law, XIV, 355, which is of itself 
"as good as a condensed Blackstone." 

Then read, as occasion may permit, 
the following articles or parts of articles: 
The origin of law, VIII,' 548. 
Plato on law, XIX, 221. 

Eoman schools of law, XIV, 164. 

Roman law, XX, 686, 

Justinian's codification, XIII, 801; VI, 
95; XX, 731. 

Early English law, VIII, 250. 

Administration of law in England, 
VIII, 237. 

English codes of law, VI, 95. 

Codes of Roman law, XX, 729. 

The Code Napoleon, IX, 541 ; XVII, 212. 

Inns of Court, XIII, 93. 

Jurisprudence, XIV, 355. 



Codes 



II. LAWS IN history. 

Institutes of Manu, IV, 184 a'; XII, 
821 note; XXI, 301. 

Laws of Moses, III, 548; XVI, 888; 
XIII, 407. 

Laws of Confucius, VI, 229. 

Laws of Mohammed, XVI, 613, 616. 



Biographies 



Laws of Lycurgus, XXII, 384. 
Laws of Solon, XXII, 267-68. 
Agrarian laws, I, 256. 
The Salic law, XXI, 222. 
Brehon laws, IV, 225; XIII, 225. 
American blue laws, XXV, 511. 

III. great lawgivers and lawyers. 

Moses, XVI, 888; XIII, 407. 
Confucius, VI, 229. 

Buddha, IV, 381. 

Mohammed, XVI, 568. 
Zoroaster, XXIV, 859. 
Lycurgus, XV, 96. 
Solon, XXII, 267. 
Justinian, XIII, 801. 
Alfred the Great, I, 447. 
Savigny, XXI, 340. 
Thibaut, XXIII, 321. 
Zacharise, XXIV, 800. 
Grotius, XI, 193. 
Vico, XXIV, 228. 
Sir John Fortescue, IX, 370. 
Sir Edward Coke, VI, 109. 
Sir V^illiam Blackstone, III, 695. 
Lord Mansfield, XV, 505-507. 
Lord Eldon, VII, 719-21. 
Daniel Webster, XXIV, 498. 
John Marshall, XV, 581. 
Joseph Story, XXII, 606. 
John Austin, III, 89. 
James Kent, XIV, 42. 

IV. general branches of law. 

Common Law, VI, 186. 
Equity, or Chancery law, VIII, 452- 
53; V, 338. 
Constitutional law, VI, 275. 
Criminal law, VI, 520; IX, 109. 
Canon law, V, 15; XIX, 513; VI, 488. 
Ecclesiastical law, VII, 543. 
Military law, XVI, 308; II, 513. 
Martial law, VI, 459. 
Commercial law, XXVI, 248. 



176 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Mercantile law, XXVIII, 72. 
Maritime law, XXI, 610. 
International law, XIII, 196; X, 144; 
XII, 155. 
Foreign laws, XXVII, 5. 

V. SPECIAL LAWS OR CLASSES OF LAWS. 

Laws of agriculture, I, 265. 

Laws relating to the tenure of land, 
XIV, 260; I, 361. 

Homestead laws of the United States, 
XII, 125. 

Landlord and tenant, XIV, 273. 

Leases, I, 304. 

Laws concerning real estate, XX, 317. 

Law of fences in the United States, 
XXVI, 630. 

Private International Law, and Inter- 
state Commerce Laws, XXVII, 394. 

Laws concerning husband and wife, 
XII, 415; XXVIII, 32. 
■ Marriage laws, XV, 572. 

Marriage laws in the United States, 
XXVIII, 32. 

Laws of divorce in the United States, 
XXVI, 426. 

Laws relating to women, XXIV, 671. 

Laws regarding infants, XIII, 3. 

Laws concerning personal estate, 
XVIII, 677. 

Exemption laws of the United StateS; 
XXVI, 601. 

Laws of intestacy, XIII, 203. 

Laws relating to wills, XXIV, 601. 

Laws of primogeniture, XIX, 752. 

Partnership laws, XVIII, 334; XXVIII, 
341. 

Bankrupt laws. III, 295-98; XXV, 349. 

Labor laws, XXVI, 571; XIV, 166. 
Factory laws in the United States, 
XXVI, 607. 

Factory laws, VIII, 739. 

Laws of apprenticeship, II, 185. 



Corporation laws, VI, 382. 

Port laws, XI, 421. 

Press laws, XIX, 729. 

Corn laws, VI, 362. 

Corn laws in the United States, VI, 366. 

Election laws in the United States 

XXVI, 503. 
Elections, VIII, 4. 

Ballot — Australian ballot laws. Ill, 
249; XXV, 336. 

Laws relating to public health, XX, 101. 
Public health laws in the United 
States, XV, 808. 

Lunacy laws, XV, 808. 
Quarantine laws, XX, 159. 
Burial acts, IV, 480. 
Medical laws, XV, 808. 

Liquor laws, XIV, 694. 

Liquor laws of the United States, 

XXVII, 605. 

Sumptuary laws, XXII, 677. 

The Army Act, XVI, 309. 

Riot laws, XX, 579. 

Laws of treason, XXIII, 558-63. 

Pension laws of the United States, 

XXVIII, 382. 

Passport laws, XVIII, 349. 
Passport laws of the United States, 
XXVITI, 345. 

Patent laws, XVIII, 359; of the United 
States, XXVIII, 347. 

Copyright laws, VI, 316; of the United 
States, VI, 323. 

Recent revision of copyright laws, 
XXVI, 280. 

English laws of copyright, XIV, 542. 

International copyright, I, 631. 

Municipal laws, VI, 385. 
Riparian laws, XX, 580. 
Sea laws, XXI, 610. 



THE LAWYER 



177 



Courts 



Fishery laws, XXVI, 654. 
Game laws, X, 56; of the United 
States, XXVII, 59. 

Laws of the road, XXVIII, 597. 

Laws of auctions. III, 60. 

Laws relating to gambling, X, 60. 

Laws relating to lotteries, XV, 12. 

Laws relating to travelers, XXIX, 310, 

For additional references, see Chapter 
XLII in this Guide, entitled The Ameri- 
can Citizen. 

VI. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 

Administration of justice in primitive 
communities, VIII, 548. 

Judicial combat, VII, 441; XVII, 843. 

Areopagus, II, 424. 

Supreme Court of the United States, 
II, 183; XIII, 798; XXIX, 196. 

Judicial courts, VI, 458. 
Courts of the United States, 
XXVI, 297. 

Federal courts of the United States, 
XXIII, 787. 

United States court of claims, XXVI, 
181. 

Court of private land claims, XXVI, 
297. 

Courts of appeal, II, 182; VI, 458; 
XIII, 774. 

Criminal courts, VI, 458. 

Justices' court, XXII, 675. 

English courts of justice, VIII, 236; 
XX, 323. 

Quarter sessions, XX, 165. 

Courts of summary jurisdiction, XXII, 
675. 

High court of justiciary, XIII, 799. 

Courts of oyer and terminer, XVIII, 
109. 

Courts of chancery, V, 338; XX, 323. 

High court of admiralty, 1, 144. 

Vice-admiralty courts, I, 146; XXI, 
637. 

12 



Judge, XIII, 772. 

Prerogatives of Judges, XIX, 



Officers 



692. 



Judicial costume, VI, 422. 
Justice of the peace, XIII, 798. 

Grand jury, XXVII, 139. 
Trial by jury, VIII, 268; XIII, 793; 
XXIII, 589. 

Trial by court-martial, VI, 459. 
Contempt of court, VI, 283. 

Barristers, III, 340. 

Attorney, III, 55; XXV, 290. 

Sheriff, XXI, 837; VI, 455. 

Constable, VI, 263; XXVI, 266. 

Advocates' Faculty in Scotland, XXV, 
53. 

For additional references, see Chapter 
XLIX in this Guide, entitled The Magis- 
trate and Policeman. 

VII. LAW terms and LEGAL PROCESSES. 

The following is a partial list of law 

terms and legal processes explained 

in the Britannica, to which 

^T^rnis.etc.i^ "^^^ ^^ uecessary at some 
time to refer: 

Abatement, I, 12; XXV, 10. 

Abduction, I, 35. 

Abettor, I, 50. 

Abeyance, I, 50; XXV, 27. 

Abstract of title, XXV, 30. See also 
Conveyancing. 

Acceptance, I, 79. 

Accession, I, 79. 

Accessory, I, 79. 

Accident in law, XXV, 33. 

Accomplice, XXV, 36. 

Accord and satisfaction, XXV, 36. 

Acknowledgement, XXV, 39. 

Acquittal, XXV, 40. 

Act of God, XXV, 40. 

Ademption, XXV, 47. 

Action, I, 122; XXV, 41. 



178 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Adjudication, I, 140. 

Administrator, I, 141; XXV, 50. 

Adoption, I, 149. 

Adulteration, I, 152. 

Adultery, I, 160; XXV, 51. 

Advancement, XXV, 51. 

Advocate, I, 161. 

Advowson, I, 162. 

Affidavit, I, 203; XXV, 57. 

Affinity, I, 203. [84. 

Age, Legal, XXV, 84; of Consent, XXV, 

Agent, I, 250. 

Agistment, I, 253. 

Agreement, XXV, 86. 

Agnates, I, 253. 

Aiding and abetting, XXV, 104. 

Alias, I, 505. 

Alibi, I, 505; XXV, 132. 

Alien, I, 506. 

Aliment, I, 508. 

Alimony, I, 508; XXV, 133. 

Allodium, I, 516. 

Amendment, XXV, 158. 

Annuities, II, 64. 

Appeal, II, 182; XXV, 212. 

Apportionment, XXV, 215. 

Appraiser, II, 185. 

Apprenticeship, II, 185. 

Appropriation, XXV, 215. 

Arbitrage, II, 273. 

Arbitration, II, 273; XXV, 221. 

Arraignment, II, 549. 

Arrest, II, 550; XXV, 253. 

Arrest of judgment, XXV, 254. 

Arson, II, 556. 

Assault. II, 633. 

Assets, II, 637; XXV, 274. 

Assignment, II, 637. 

Assize, II, 638. 

Association, II, 638. 

Attachment, III, 45; XXV, 289. 

Attainder, III, 46. 

Attorney, HI, 55; XXV, 290. 

Barristers, III, 340. 

Bench warrant, XXV, 422. 



Bigamy, III, 577. 

Bill of exceptions, XXV, 477. 

Blasphemy, III, 700. 

Bona fide, XXV, 538. 

Bounty, XXV, 557. 

Breach of promise, XXV, 578. 

Bribery, IV, 247; XXV, 587. 

Burden of proof, XXV, 648. 

Burgage, IV, 476. 

Capias, XXVI, 52. 

Casuistry, V, 177. 

Certiorari, XXVI, 100. 

Contract, VI, 286. 

Costs, VI, 399. 

Conveyancing, VI, 288; XXVI, 272. 

Codicil, XXVI, 220. 

Conspiracy, VI, 261. 

Company, VI, 197, 384. 

Contraband, VI, 284. 

Corporation, VI, 382. 

Crime, VI, 515. 

Damages, VI, 693; XXVI, 601. 

Deodand, VII, 87. 

Deposition, XXVI, 399. 

Descent, XXVI, 402. 

Desertion, XXVI, 403. 

Domicile, VII. 304. 

Divorce, VII, 260-65. 

Duel, VII, 441; XVII, 844. 

Duress, XXVI, 469. 

Embezzlement, VIII, 147. 

Employer and employee, XXVI, 571. 

Equity, VIII, 452. 

Entail, VIII, 400. 

Estoppel, VIII, 497. 

Eviction, XXVI, 597. 

Evidence, VIII, 647. 

Emigration, VIII, 159. 

Exchange, VIII, 686. 

Execution, XXVI, 601. 

Executors and administrators, VIII,700. 

Ex post facto, XXVI, 604. 

Extradition, VIII, 711; XXVI, 604. 

Factors, VIII, 738. 

Felony, IX, 60. 



THE LAWYER 



179 



Flotsam and Jetsam, IX, 300. 

Forgery, IX, 364. 

Franchise, XXVII, 22. 

Fraud, IX, 638; XXVII, 29. 

Games and gaming, X, 60. 

Gavelkind, X, 107. 

Garnishment, XXVII, 67. 

Genealogy, X, 127. 

Gift, X, 527. 

Guilds, XI, 230. 

Habeas corpus, XXVII, 207. 

Hiring, XII, 3. 

Holidays in the United States, XXVII, 
302. 

Homestead, XII, 125. 

Homicide, XII, 128. 

Hotch-potch, XII, 321. 

Impeachment, XII, 755. 

Indictment, XII, 883. [386. 

Infamy and infamous crime, XXVII, 

Information, XXVII, 386 

Insurance, XIII, 167. 

Infant, XIII, 3. 

Infringement, XXVII, 387. 

Inheritance, XIII, 83. 

Injunction, XXVII, 389. 

Insanity, XIII, 101. 

Intestacy, XIII, 203. 

Kidnapping, XIV, 70. 

Legacy, XXVII, 569. 

Libel and slander, XIV, 504; XXVII, 
585. 

Lien, XIV, 573. 

License, XXVII, 591. 

Limitation, statutes of, XIV, 656. 

Limitation of actions, XXVII, 600. 

Misdemeanor, XVI, 525. 

Monopoly, XVI, 784. 

Mortgage, XVI, 875. 

Murder, XVII, 58. 
• Outlaw, XVIII, 79. 

Oyer and terminer, XVIII, 109. 

Pardon, XVIII, 276. 

Partition, XVIII, 334. 

Partnership, XVIII, 334; XXVIII, 341. 



Patents, XVIII, 359. 

Payment, XVIII, 451. 

Penalty, XXVIII, 373. 

Perjury, XVIII, 559. 

Petition, XVIII, 717. 

Pension, XXVIII, 382. 

Pleading, XIX, 229. 

Penitentiary, XIX, 767. 

Poor, XIX, 476. 

Prescription, XIX, 723. 

Prisons, XIX, 766. 

Primogeniture, XIX, 752. 

Quarantine, XX, 159. 

Quare impedit, XX, 165. 

Quo warranto, XX, 196; XXVIII, 529. 

Quorum, XXVIII, 528. 

Receivers, XXVIII, 558. 

Recognizance, XX, 322. 

Records, XX, 323. 

Registration, XX, 354. 

Rent, XX, 414. 

Replevin, XX, 416. 

Rights, Bill of, XX, 569. 

Riot, XX, 579. 

Sale, XXI, 215. 

Sea laws, XXI, 610. 

Settlement, XXI, 726. 

Simony, XXII, 91. 

Smuggling, XXII, 195. 

Solicitor, XXII, 264. 

Stamp, XXII, 465. 

Subpoena, XXII, 676; XXIV, 732. 

Succession, XXII, 649. 

Summons, XXII, 676. 

Sumptuary, XXII, 677. 

Surrender, XXII, 728. 

Taxation, XXIII, 91; IX, 150. 

Theft, XXIII, 250, 

Threats, XXIX, 278. 

Treason, XXIII, 558. 

Tort, XXIII, 482; VI, 520. 

Trespass, XXIII, 587. 

Trial, XXIII, 589. 

Trust, XXIII, 633. 

Usury, XXIV, 22. 



180 



GUIDE TO THE BRIT AN NIC A 



Venue, XXIV, 176. 

Wills, XXIV, 601. 

Witness, XXIV, 657; VIII, 651. 

Wreck, XXIV, 722. 

Writ, XXIV, 728. 

VIII. TEN BOOKS FOR LAWYERS. 

Justinian's Institutes, XIII, 803. 

Hunter's Exposition of Roman Law, 
XIV, 362. 

Blackstone's Commentaries on the 
Laws of England, 111/695. 

Littleton on Tenures, XIV, 710. 



Coke's Institutes ("Coke upon Little- 
ton"), VI, 110. 

Austin's Province of Jurisprudence 
Determined, XIV, 355. 

Sir Henry Maine's Early History of 
Institutions, XIV, 364. 

Hobbes's Leviathan, VIII, 376. 

Jeremy Bentham's Rationale of Ju- 
dicial Evidence, III, 497. 

Hallam's Constitutional History of 
England, XI, 351. 

See also Chapter XLII, entitled The 
American Citizen, in this Guide. 



CHAPTER XLIX 
The Magistrate and Policeman 

"Your scope is as mine own, so to enforce or qualify the laws." 

— Measure for Measure. 



That branch of criminal justice which 
comprises a methodical system for the 

prevention and detection of 
'%Tstice crime is very appropriately 

called The Police. The object 
of the police system^ however, extends 
beyond the mere suppression of crime, 
and includes the regulation of whatever 
is injurious to the peace, morality, and 
welfare of the community. It is very 
evident that the person who is invested 
with authority to enforce the obser- 
vance of law and order should have at 
least some general knowledge of the ob- 
jects, aims, and methods of police jus- 
tice. The history of crime and of the 
public efforts constantly necessary for 
its suppression presents many problems 
for the consideration of lawmakers, 
while at the same time it affords much 
food for thought to those who are en- 



trusted with the duty of enforcing the 
laws. The following references will 
direct readers of the Britannica to a vast 
amount of interesting information rela- 
tive to crime and its punishment and 
the various duties of the policeman. 
The policeman himself will find these 
readings not only entertaining, but in 
the highest degree profitable. 

.^dile, Roman public officer, I, 163. 

Quaestor, Roman magistrate, XX, 151. 

Sheriff, XXI, 837. 

Constable, VI, 263. 

Magistrate, XV, 217; XIII, 772, 798. 

Police Commissioners, XIX, 
349. 

Policemen in the United States, XIX, 
354. 

Police in various countries, XIX, 
353-57. 

Detectives, XIX, 349. 



Officers 



THE MAGISTRATE AND POLICEMAN 



181 



Procedure 



Pinkerton laws, XXVIII, 432. 
Gaoler, XIX, 767. 

Arrest, II, 550. 

Warrant, XXIV, 391. 

Subpoena, XXII, 676. 
Summons, XXIV, 732; XIX, 
231. 

Trial, XXIII, 589. 

Jury, XIII, 793. 

Justice of the peace, XIII, 798. 

Court of justice, XXII, 675. 

Witnesses, XXIV, 657; VIII, 651; XIX, 
797. 

Plea, XIX, 230. 

Advocate, I, 161. 

Judgment, XIII, 774. 

Habeas corpus, XI, 320. 

Corpus delicti, XXVI, 289. 

Pardon, XVIII, 276. 

Crime, VI, 515. 

Roman laws in relation to crime, XX, 
692. 
Criminal law, VI, 520. 

Criminal courts, VI, 458. 

Criminality, XXVI, 309. 

Criminal anthropology, XXV, 202. 

Identification of criminals, XXVI, 310. 

Bertillon system of identification, 
XXV, 443. 

Vidocq, the famous French detective, 
XXIX, 443. 

Treason, XXIII, 558. 

Murder, Manslaughter, XVII, 58-59. 

Theft, XXIII, 250. 

Assault, II, 633. 



Crime 



Punishment 



Burglary, XXV, 649. 
Arson, II, 556. 
Forgery, IX, 364. 
Libel and Slander, XIV, 504. 
Crime (Lynching, etc.) in the United 
States, XXVII, 649. 

Punishment of crime, VI, 517 b'; XIX, 
766. 

Punishment under Roman 
law, XX, 692. 
Stocks, XXII, 589. 
Pillory, XIX, 104. 
Branks for scolds, XXV, 574. 
Torture, XXIII, 490. 
Drowning for punishment, XXVI, 456. 
The garrote, XXVII, 68. 
The knout, XXI, 100 a.'" 
Whipping-post, XXIX, 537. 
Capital punishment, XXVI, 52. 
Imprisonment, XIX, 767. 
Prisons, XXVIII, 493. 
Prison reform, IX, 268, 706; XII, 333. 
Elizabeth Fry, IX, 706-07. 
Prison discipline, XIX, 767. 
Reformatory schools, XX, 350. 
Reformatories, XXVIII, 567. 
Transportation of convicts, XIX, 767, 

769. 

Ticket of leave, convicts on, VI, 521. 

Penitentiaries, XIX, 768. 

Prison discipline in the United States, 
XIX, 783. 

Workhouses, XIX, 482, 491. 

For further references, see Chapter 
XLVIII, entitled The Lawyer, in this 
Guide. 






^0^"^^" 



CHAPTER L 



The Physician 

"Then give place to the physician, for the Lord hath created him: 
let him not go from thee, for thou hast need of him." — Ecclesiasticus. 



Medicine 



Medicine, the subject-matter of one 
of the learned professions, includes a 
wide range of scientific knowl- 
edge and skill. In the Encij- 
dopcedia Britannica it receives a large 
share of attention, in both its historical 
and its scientific aspects. The special 
article on this subject, XV, 804-826, 
gives first a synoptical view of medicine, 
and then, in the second part, traces its 
history from its small beginnings in 
Greece down to the present time. Let 
us reverse this order, and present first a 
series of readings or references on 

THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE. 

Among the ancient Greeks the actual 
organization of the healing art was 
ascribed to ^sculapius (or Asclepius), 
of whom we have a special notice in I, 
189. We are now ready to read the sec- 
tion on medicine as portrayed in the 
Homeric poems, XV, 809; after which 
we can take up the following subjects 
in their order: 

Hippocratic medicine, XV, 810. 

Hippocrates, " the father of medicine," 
XI, 761; his surgery, XXII, 708. 

Alexandrian school of medicine, XV, 
811, and XXII, 708. 

Roman medicine, XV, 812; Asclepia- 
des of Prusa, II, 593; Galen, X, 22; Are- 
tffius, II, 428. 

Byzantine School of Medicine, XV, 814. 

Arabian medicine, I, 706; XV, 814; 

(182) 



Avicenna, III, 133; Averroes, III, 129; 
Maimonides, XV, 297. 

Medicine in the Middle Ages, XV, 815. 

The Period of the Renaissance, XV, 
817. See also Linacre, XIV, 658; Rabe- 
lais, XX, 200; Paracelsus, XVIII, 238, and 
XXII, 710. See in this Guide, the refer- 
ences to Alchemy, p. 95. 

Revival of ancient medicine, XV, 818. 

Medical Associations in the United 
States, XXVIII, 58. 

American Academy of Medicine, XXV, 
32. 

Medical education in the United States, 
XXVIII, 59. 

GREAT PHYSICIANS. 

John Kaye, founder of Caius College, 
IV, 575. 

William Harvey, and the discovery of 
the circulation of the blood, XI, 448. 

Van Helmont, XI, 569. 

Borelli, and the latro-Physical school, 
IV, 47. 

Francis de le Boe, and the latro- 
Chemical school, XV, 820. 

Thomas Sydenham, "the English Hip- 
pocrates," XXII, 844. He was the inti- 
mate friend of John Locke, "the great 
sensational philosopher," who was also 
a thoroughly trained physician, and 
practiced medicine privately, XIV, 758. 

Hermann Boerhaave, the organizer of 
the modern method of clinical instruc- 
tion, III, 742. 



THE PHYSICIAN 



183 



George Ernest Stahl, originator of 
the theory of "animism," XXII, 461; 
II, 49. 

Morgagni, who was the first to make 
morbid anatomy a branch of medical 
research, XVI, 848. 

Albrecht von Haller, the great Swiss 
anatomist and physiologist, XI, 354. 

William Cullen, VI, 613. 

John Brown, "the last systematizer 
of medicine" — originator of the Bruno- 
nian system, IV, 346. 

Hahnemann, founder of the Homoeo- 
pathic school, XI, 333; XV, 823. 

Edward Jenner, discoverer of vaccina- 
tion for smallpox, XIII, 633; XXIV, 28. 

Leopold Avenbrugger, inventor of the 
method of recognizing diseases of the 
chest by percussion. III, 87, 126. 

Laennec, inventor of the method of 
physical diagnosis by the stethoscope, 
XIV, 201. 

Erasmus Darwin, VI, 730; XV, 825. 

Richard Bright, discoverer of the dis- 
ease known by his name, XXV, 595. 

Philippe Pinel, the originator of the 
humane treatment of the insane, XIX, 
115; XIII, 116. 

John Hunter, XII, 400-07. 

John Abercrombie, I, 40. 

John Abernethy, I, 49. 

Erik Acharius, I, 89. 

Sir J. F. E. Acton, I, 123. 

Alexander of Tralles, I, 430. 

Prospero Alpini, I, 544. 

Charles Alston, I, 561. 

Johann Conrad Amman, I, 648, 

John Arbuthnot, II, 284. 

Neil Arnott, II, 548. 

Aspasius, II, 624. 

Andrew Combe, VI, 160. 

John Elliotson, VIII, 138. 

Marshall Hall, XI, 348. 

Charles T. Jackson, one of the dis- 
coverers of anaesthesia, XXVII, 432. 



Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, IV, 323. 

Austin Flint, XXVI, 662. 

Rudolf Virchow, the German pa- 
thologist, XXIX, 448. 

Robert Koch, discoverer of the 
"lymph" remedy for consumption, 

XXVII, 514. 

Lord Joseph Lister, the originator of 
antiseptic surgery, XXVII, 608. 

Sir Morell Mackenzie, the great throat 
specialist, XXVII, 672. 

Louis Pasteur, discoverer of the cause 
and cure of hydrophobia, XXVII, 349; 

XXVIII, 346. 

William C. Rontgen, discoverer of the 
Rontgen rays, XXVIII, 616. 

But it is unnecessary for the Guide 
to go farther in this direction. To give 
a complete list of the men who have 
distinguished themselves in this profes- 
sion would transcend the limits assigned 
to this chapter. 

SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF MEDICINE. 

See the special article on this subject, 
XV, 804. The following articles, or 
parts of articles, may also be consulted 
as occasion requires: 

Relation of medicine to the body 
politic, XV, 807. 

Subdivisions of medicine as an art 
and discipline, XV, 806. 

Surgery, XXII, 707. 

Surgical pathology, XXIX, 198. 

Obstetrics and Gynaecology, XV, 806. 

Dermatology, XXII, 128; XVIII, 274. 

Ophthalmology, XVII, 802. 

Laryngology, XXIII, 340. 

Otology, VII, 511. 

Dentistry, VII, 83; artificial teeth, 
XIII, 533; teeth, XXII, 115; human teeth, 
VII, 232. 

Pathology, the doctrine of disease, 
XVIII, 366-418, very fully illustrated. 

See Miscellaneous Topics, below. 



184 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



THE HUMAN BODY. 

Anatomy, I, 700-800. This is a very 
complete treatise, describing the special 
anatomy of the human body in a state 
of health. It is amply illustrated with 
diagrams and full-page plates. 

Skeleton, XXII, 113. 

Muscles, XIX, 12. 

Vascular system, or organs of circula- 
tion, XXIV, 103. 

Digestive organs, VII, 192. 

The skin, I, 787. 

Nervous system, XIX, 26. 

Physiology, XIX, 11-50. This valua- 
ble article is in two parts: Part I, gen- 
eral view; Part II, the nervous system. 

Comparative Physiology, III, 592. 

Digestion, VII, 192. 

Circulation, XXIV, 106; XI, 449. 

Nutrition, XVII, 686. 

Absorption, I, 58; XVII, 697. 

Animal heat, XVIII, 402. 

Vivisection, XXIX, 456. 

Hygiene, XII, 600. This is a short 
article of a popular character, referring 
to (1) climatic conditions, (2) site of 
dwellings, (3) sanitation of dwellings, 
(4) ventilation, (5) cleansing, (6) water 
supply, (8) work and exercise, etc. 

Dietetics, VII, 174. 

Athletic training and exercise, HI, 12; 

XXI, 66. 
Ventilation, XXIV, 171. 
Sanitation of dwellings, XXI, 749. 

SUEGERY. 

The general article on this subject, 

XXII, 707-28, is a complete treatise of 

great interest and practical 
^pSice''^ ^^lue. It embraces 

(1) The history of surgery, 
XXII, 707. 

(2) Practice of surgery, XXII, 712. 
Treatment of injuries, XXII, 715. 
Process of repair, XXII, 717. 



Treatment of diseases, XXII, 718. 

Operative surgery, XXII, 723. 

The supplementary article on Ameri- 
can Surgery, XXIX, 198, etc., describes 
the recent wonderful advancements 
made in the practice of this art. 

Inflammation and ulceration, XXIX, 
199. 

Fractures, XXIX, 200. 

Tumors, XXIX, 200. 

Operative surgery, and the brain, 
XXIX, 201. 

Abdominal surgery, XXIX, 202. 

Surgical treatment of appendicitis, 
XXIX, 203. 

Surgical treatment for kidney diseases, 
XXIX, 204. 

Several other related topics are treated 
specially, each under its own title. 
Among them are 

Blood-poisoning, XXI, 698. 

Tracheotomy, XXIX, 307. 

Detection of Bloodstains, XXV, 508. 

Artificial Limbs, XXV, 261. 

Surgeon's Tools, XXIX, 197. 

SCHOOLS OF medicine, ETC. 

Allopathy, XXV, 140. 

American Eclectic School of Medicine, 
XXV, 159. 

Homoeopathy, XII, 129. 

Hydropathy, XII, 575; III, 379. 

Isopathy, XXVII, 424. 

Massage and Swedish Movements, see 
Ling, XXVII, 602. 

Osteopathy, XXVIII, 301. 

miscellaneous topics. 

Schizomycetes — the germ theory of 
disease, XXI, 415-425 (illustrated); Bac- 
teriology, XXV, 318. The latter is an 
exceedingly valuable article, presenting 
the results of the latest researches. 

Embryology, VIII, 150. 

Ague, IX, 110; XV, 319; XVIII, 405-07. 



THE PHYSICIAN 



ibb 



Ansesthesia, I, 692; XXV, 180. 

Animal Magnetism, XV, 279. 

Antagonism of Drugs, XXV, 199-200. 

Antidotes, XIX, 288. 

Apoplexy, II, 169. 

Appendicitis, XXIX, 203. 

Appendix Vermiformis, XXV, 212. 

Auscultation, III, 87. 

Bronchitis, IV, 326. 

Catarrh, V, 190; XVIII, 385; 
Misceiia- of the stomach, XXII, 603. 

Topics Cholera, V, 592. The latest 

discoveries and theories relat- 
ing to this disease are described in 
XXVI, 162. 

Consumption, see Phthisis, XVIII, 869. 

Croup, VI, 544; XXIII, 341, 

Dietetics, VII, 174. 

Digestive Organs, VII, 192. 

Diphtheria, VII, 217. 

Drowning, VII, 409. 

Enteritis, XXVI, 580. 
■ Fever, IX, 109. 

Goitre, X, 658. 

Gout, XI, 6. 

Heart diseases, XI, 493. 

Hip-joint diseases, XXVII, 292. 

Hydrophobia, XII, 578. 

Hypnotism, see Animal Magnetism, 
XV, 279. 

Hysteria, XII, 635. ' 

Inoculation, XXII, 174. 

Insanity, XIII, 101. 

Jaundice, XIII, 608. 

Leprosy, XIV, 469. 

Longevity, XIV, 868. 

Malaria, XV, 319; IX, 110; XVIII, 403- 
405. 

Measles, XV, 663. 

Mesmerism, see Animal Magnetism, 
XV, 279. 

Neuralgia, XVII, 372. 

Nutrition, XVII, 686. 

Ophthalmology, XVII, 802. 

Paralysis, XVIII, 259. 



Parasitism, XVIII, 262. 
Pharmacopoeia, XVIII, 744. 
Phrenology, XVIII, 856. 
Phthisis, XVIII, 869. 
Plague, XIX, 169. 
Pleurisy, XIX, 233. 
Pneumonia, XIX, 261. 
Poisons, XIX, 287; XVIII, 417. 
Public health, XX, 101. 
Quarantine, XX, 159. 
Quinine, XX, 191. 
Rabies, XX, 205. 
Scarlet Fever, XXI, 393. 
Smallpox, XXII, 172. 
Stammering, XXII, 464. 
Stomach, Diseases of, XXII, 603. 
Stricture, XXIX, 185. 
Sunstroke, XXII, 700. 
Tetanus, XXIII, 217. 
Throat Diseases, XXIII, 340. 
Tuberculosis, see Phthisis, XVIII, 869. 
Typhus, Typhoid, and Relapsing 
Fevers, XXIII, 718. 
Vaccination, XXIV, 28. 
Vascular System, XXIV, 103. 
Vesical Diseases, XXIV, 204. 
Veterinary Science, XXIV, 213. 
Yellov^ Fever, XXIV, 770. 

Of shorter and less important articles 
on medical subjects, the number is so 
great that we cannot under- 
' take to name them here. The 
mention of a few, as below, will serve 
to indicate the vast amount of medical 
lore contained in the Britannica: 

Abortion, I, 53. 

Achor, XXV, 38. 

Acupressure, I, 123. 

Anchylosis, II, 10. 

Aneurism, II, 25. 

Angina Pectoris, II, 28. 

Asphyxia, II, 626. 

Asthma, II, 643. 

Ataxy, Locomotor, II, 723. 



186 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Auscultation, III, 87. 
Bright's Disease, IV, 312. 
Cancer, IV, 707. 
Cautery, XXVI, 90. 
Clubfoot, VI, 41. 
Colic, VI, 126. 
Corpulence, VI, 385. 
Cramp, VI, 481. 
Croup, VI, 544. 
Diabetes, VII, 127. 
Endemic diseases, XXVI, 573. 
Epilepsy, VIII, 425. 
Erysipelas, VIII, 470. 
Glanders, X, 565. 
Hydrophobia, XXVII, 349. 
Paralysis, XVIII, 259. 
Meningitis, XVI, 15. 
Rheumatism, XX, 530. 
Rickets, XX, 562. 
Whooping-cough, XII, 157, etc. 

REMEDIES. 

Remedies are treated in a like com- 
prehensive manner; only a few are 
named, merely as examples: 

Antitoxin, XXV, 207. 

Arnica, II, 545. 



Belladonna, III, 469. 
Calomel, IV, 629. 
Cod-liver oil, VI, 95. 
Diuretics, VII, 253. 
Emetics, VIII, 157. 
Epsom salts, VIII, 440. 
Galbanum, X, 21, 
Goa-powder, X, 630. 
Mercury, XVI, 36. 
Quinine, XX, 191. 
Tuberculin, XXIX, 328. 
Antagonism of Drugs, XXV, 199-200. 
See also the references in Chapter LI, 
entitled The A^pothecanj, in this Guide. 

INSTRUMENTS USED IN MEDICINE 
AND SURGERY. 

Stethoscope, III, 87. 
Eophone, XXVI, 581. 
Enucleator, XXVI, 581. 
Ha^mocytometer, XXVII, 209. 
Surgeon's tools, XXIX, 197. 
Surgeon's illuminating apparatus, 
XXVII, 364. 

Sphygmograph, XXIX, 140. 
Trephine, XXIX, 315. 



CHAPTER LI 

The Apothecary 

"By medicine life may be prolonged, yet death will seize the 
doctor too." — Cymbeline. 



Definition 



The word apothecary is derived from 
the Greek apotheke, the name which 
Galen (X, 22; XV, 813) applied 
to the closet or room in which 
he kept his medicines. In America an 
apothecary is often called a druggist; 
but in some sections of the country 
the term pharmacist, or pharmaceutical 
chemist, is frequently applied to him. 
Generally speaking, an apothecary is a 



person who compounds and sells drugs 
and medicines. 

In 1868 an act was passed by the Brit- 
ish Parliament prohibiting any person 
from engaging in this business without 
being registered. Since that time many 
of the States of the American Union 
have passed similar laws. In most 
parts of our country an apothecary is 
now obliged to pass an examination be- 



THE CHEMIST 



187 



fore a State Board of Pharmacy before 
he is permitted to compound medicines 
or fill physicians' prescriptions. In 
some of the States this examination is 
very rigid, and only such applicants as 
are thoroughly conversant with the 
principles of pharmacy and its related 
subjects can reasonably hope to pass 
the ordeal. To persons looking forward 
to an examination of this kind, the fol- 
lowing references to the Encijclopcedia 
Britannica will be of much valuable as- 
sistance : 

Short history of the business of apoth- 
ecary in England, II, 174. 

Pharmacopoeia, XVIII, 744. 
International pharmacopceia, 
XVIII, 745. 

Dispensary, XXVI, 424. 

Pharmaceutical chemists, XV, 809. 

Materia Medica, XVIII, 744-45. 
Forensic Medicine, XV, 788-94. 
Organic Chemistry, V, 471. 
Practical Botany, see Index, IV, 148. 
Chemical affinity, I, 140, 203. 
Poisons, XIX, 287; XVII, 238. 
Intoxicants, VII, 416. , 

Narcotics, XVII, 237. 



History 



Stimulants, VII, 178. 
Tonics, XXIX, 301. 
Ansesthetics, XVII, 237. 
Ansesthesia, I, 692. 

Alcohol, I, 415. 

Quinine, XX, 191. 

Opium, XVII, 238, 809. 
some Twngs Morphia, XVII, 238, 815. 
ecary's stock Chloroform, V, 590. 
Chloral, V, 587-89. 

Cocaine, VI, 605; XXVI, 218. 

Acetylene, or Ethine Gas, XXV, 37. 

Antacids, XXV, 199. 

Antipyrin, XXV, 205, 

Antitoxin, XXV, 207. 

Aromatic Vinegar, XXV, 252. 

Bromide of Ethyl, XXV, 606. 

Ethylamine, XXVI, 591. 

Fungicides, XXVII, 47. 

Hippuric Acid, XXVII, 294. 

The above list might be indefinitely 
extended, but enough is here given to 
show the variety of information that 
the Encyclopcedia Britannica offers to 
the apothecary, or pharmacist. 

Consult carefully the references given 
in this Guide, in Chapters L and LII, 
entitled The Physician and The Chemist. 



CHAPTER LII 
The Chemist 



" You are an alchemist. 



HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 

The advancement of the science of 
chemistry during the past quarter of 
a century has perhaps been 
greater than during any pre- 
ceding period of similar length. The 
article in the American supplements to 



History 



Make gold." 

— Shakespeare. 

the Britannica, XXVI, 130-139, describes 
in a brief but comprehensive manner all 
the more important discoveries made 
since the year 1875. The complete his- 
tory of the science is told in the fifth 
volume of the Britannica, in the very 
full and able article on that subject, be- 
ginning on page 397. 



188 



GUIDE TO THE BRTTANNICA 



The first mention of chemistry is 
found in the dictionary of Suidas, who 
flourished in the 11th century (see XXII, 
665). He defines it as " the preparation 
of silver and gold"; and all the efforts 
of the early chemists (whom we now 
call alchemists) seem to have been di- 
rected toward the finding of some 
method for making gold and silver. 

From the 11th to the 15th century, 
alchemy was diligently studied by the 
philosophers of Europe. 

This period marks the "sickly but 
imaginative infancy" of modern chem- 
istry (see Alchemy, I, 406). It was Para- 
celsus who declared that " the true use 
of chemistry is not to make gold, but to 
prepare medicines"; see XVIII, 238. 

FAMOUS CHEMISTS. 

Van Helmont (1577-1644), XI, 569. 

Glauber (1604-68), the discoverer of 
Glauber's salt, X, 602. 

Robert Boyle (1627-91), discoverer of 
Boyle and Mariotte's law, IV, 166. 

Edme Mariotte (died 1684), co-discov- 
erer of Boyle and Mariotte's law, XV, 
554. 

F. Hoffman, XII, 48. 

Sir Isaac Newton, who was the first 
to indicate the nature and modes of 
formation of gases, XVII, 449 (see In- 
dex). 

Dr. Stephen Hales (1677-1761), who 
was the first to describe the air as " a 
fine elastic fiuid," XI, 341. 

Joseph Black (1728-99), the discoverer 
of carbonic acid gas, and the originator 
of the theories of latent heat and of 
specific heat. III, 690. 

Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), the in- 
ventor of the pneumatic trough, V, 236. 

Dr. Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), the 
discoverer of oxygen gas, XIX, 749. 

Karl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-86), the 



discoverer of chlorine and the co-dis- 
coverer of oxygen, XXI, 404. 

Lavoisier (1743-94), XIV, 353. 

Dr. Dalton, originator of the atomic 
theory, VI, 691. 

Gay-Lussac, discoverer of the laws of 
the combinations of gases by volume, 
X, 109. 

Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856), the 
discoverer of Avogadro's law, XXV, 309. 

Jons Jakob Berzelius (1779-1848), III, 
530. 

Alexander Von Humboldt, XII, 357. 

Robert Hare, XXVII, 231. 

Justus Liebig, XIV, 568 (see Index). 

Michael Faraday, IX, 27. 

William Crookes, XXVI, 317. 

Robert Ogden Doremus, XXVI, 438. 

The following supplementary articles 
will be found interesting to every 
chemist: 

Animal Chemistry, XXV, 194. 

Azotized bodies, XXV, 312. 

Physiological Chemistry, XXVIII, 419. 

Stereochemistry, XXIX, 157. 

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 

All the more important " elementary, 
or simple bodies" met with in nature 
are described in special articles in the 
Britannica. Among these are: 

Aluminium, I, 569. 

Antimony, II, 113. 

Argon, XXV, 233-34. 

Arsenic, II, 555. 

Barium, V, 455. 
Bismuth, III, 686. 

Boron, V, 450. 

Bromine, IV, 325. 

Calcium, XIV, 654. 

Carbon, V, 76. 

Chlorine, V, 589. 

Cobalt, VI, 75. 

Copper, VI, 308; and see Index vol- 
ume, p. 230. 



Elements 



THE MINERALOGIST 



189 



Gold, X, 659; and see Index volume, 
pp. 386-87. 

Helium, XXVII, 268. 

Hydrogen, XII, 449. 

Iodine, XIII, 208. 

Iron, XIII, 284; and see Index volume, 
p. 465. 

Lead, XIV, 374. 

Magnesium, XV, 218. 

Mercury, XVI, 36. 

Nickel, XVII, 500. 

Nitrogen, XVII, 528. 

Oxygen, V, 415. 

Phosphorus, XVIII, 827. 

Platinum, XIX, 201. 

Potassium, XIX, 605. 

Silicon, V, 451. 

Silver, XXII, 76; and see Index vol- 
ume, p. 829. 

Sodium, XXII, 253. 

Sulphur, XXII, 667. 

Tin, XXIII, 427. 

Zinc, XXIV, 823. 

A complete list of the elements, so 
far as novr know^n, is given in XXVI, 
131. The discovery of several nev^^ ele- 
ments is described in XXVI, 134-35. 



A FEW ADDITIONAL TOPICS. 

Atomic theory, V, 402. 

Molecular freights, V, 408. 

Periodic law, V, 470-71. 

Diffusion, VII, 186-92. 

Electrolysis, VIII, 13 b'", 99-108; VII, 
190. 

Chemical notation, V, 408. 

Organic Chemistry, V, 471; XXVI, 138. 

Animal chemistry, XXV, 194. 

Formulae of Organic Compounds, V, 
474. 

Classification of Organic Compounds,. 
V, 478. 

Hydrocarbons, V, 482. 

Haloid ethers, V, 490. 

Ethers, V, 491. 

Aldehydes, V, 492. 

Ketones, V, 492. 

Organic acids, V, 493. 

Ethereal salts, V, 496. 

Organo-metallic bodies, V, 497. 

Amides, V, 501. 

Aniline, II, 43-44. 

Unclassified organic compounds, V^ 
502. 



CHAPTER LIII 

The Mineralogist 



" Stones whose rates are either rich or poor. 
As fancy values them." ■ — Measure for Measure, 



Mineral 
Species 



A COMPLETE description of mineral 
species, illustrated with numerous dia- 
grams and cuts, is given in 
XVI, 395-448. Very many of 
the minerals there described 
are noticed at greater length in special 
articles. The following are a few of the 
most important: 
Alabaster, I, 389. 
Alum, I, 566; XVI, 419. 



Aluminium, I, 569. 
Amber, I, 579. 
Amethyst, I, 646. 
Anthracite, II, 94. 
Antimony, II, 113. 
Arsenic, II, 555. 
Asbestos, II, 590. 
Asphaltum, II, 625. 
Barytes, III, 350. 
Beryl, III, 530. 



190 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Bismuth, III, 686. 

Bitumen, XVI, 447. 

Borax, IV, 45. 

Calcite, X, 203. 

Calc-spar, IV, 579. 

Calomel, IV, 629. 

Carbuncle, V, 79. 

Carnelian, I, 248. 

Chalcedony, I, 248. 

Chalk, V, 323. 

Cinnabar, V, 686. 

Clays, X, 212. 

Coals, VI, 43-75; II, 94; X, 213; XXIII, 
852; I, 597; and Index volume, p. 210. 

Cobalt, VI, 75; XX, 28. 

Copper, VI, 308; XVI, 247, 472; XX, 
134; XXII, 771; XXIII, 870; XXVI, 279; 
XXIX, 365. 
, Copperas, VI, 312. 

Diamond, VII, 140; diamond mining, 
XVI, 475; in South Africa, V, 38; XXVII, 
496; in Brazil, IV, 201; in India, XII, 
805; cutting diamonds, XIV, 298. 

Emerald, VIII, 156. 

Emery, VIII, 157. 

Feldspar, X, 203. 

Flint, IX, 285. 

Fuller's Earth, IX, 716. 

Galena, XIV, 375. 

Garnet, X, 73, 203. 

Gold, X, 659; I, 628; IV, 621; XXIII, 
868, 869; XXV, 114; XXVI, 311; XXVII, 
115; XXIX, 365. 

Graphite, XVI, 397. 

Gypsum, XI, 313. 

Hornblende, X, 203. 

Hornstone, XVI, 405. 

Ice, XII, 646. 

Iceland-spar, IV, 580. 

Iron, XIII, 284; XVI, 62; XX, 134; 
XXII, 634; XXIII, 867-68; XXVII, 401- 
13; XXIX, 365; and Index volume, p. 
465. 

Jasper, XIII, 606. 

Jet, XIII, 683. 



Kaolin, XIV, 3, 92. 

Lead, XIV, 374; XVI, 397 b", 487 b', 
545 a'; XXIII, 871-2; XXIX, 365, 366. 

Lignite, VI, 45. 

Limestone, X, 207. 

Loam, XVI, 442. 

Magnesia, XV, 218. 

Manganese (red), XVI, 414. 

Marble, XV, 535. 

Marl, IV, 250. 

Meerschaum, XV, 834. 

Mercury, XVI, 36; XXIX, 366; also 
Index volume, p. 581. 

Meteoric Iron, XIII, 291. 

Mica, X, 203. 

Naphtha, XVII, 181. 

Nickel, XVII, 500. 

Opal, XVII, 799. 

Petroleum, XVIII, 726; as fuel, IX, 710. 

Platinum, XIX, 201. 

Pyrites, XX, 134. 

Quartz, XX, 166. 

Rock-salt, X, 204; XXI, 241. 

Ruby, XXI, 53. 

Salt, XXI, 239; mines in Austria, III, 
104; on Caspian Sea, V, 155; production 
in the United States, XXIII, 872; XXVIII, 
656. 

Saltpetre, XXI, 247. 

Sapphire, XXI, 317. 

Sapphirite, XVI, 426 a." 

Shale, XVI, 442 ; bituminous, XVIII,244. 

Silver, XXII, 76; II, 633; XVI, 62, 397, 
492; XXIX, 91, 365. 

Slate, XXII, 135; quarries of, XVI, 475. 

Sulphur, XXII, 667; mines in Sicily, 

XXII, 36, in Formosa, V, 553. 
Talc, X, 203. 

Tin, XXIII, 427; VI, 377; XVI, 62; 

XXIII, 883; XXIX, 290-92. 
Topaz, XXIII, 474. 
Tourmaline, X, 203; XVI, 426 a.'" 
Umber, XVI, 443. 

Zinc, XXIV, 823; XVI, 487; XXIII, 871; 
XXIX, 366. 



CHAPTER LIV 



The Preacher and Theologian 

" I preached as never sure to preach again, 
And as a dying man to dying men." 

■ — Richard Baxter, 1650. 

" The altitude of literature and poetry has always been religion — 
and always will be." — Walt Whitman. 



The Enct/dopcedia Britannica , embrac- 
ing as it does the whole range of human 
knowledge, must necessarily 
Eeiigious devote a large amount of at- 

Knowledge T . , , i 

tention to subjects connected 
with the religious history and religious 
thought of the world. The number of 
articles which it contains of this kind, 
their comprehensiveness, and the breadth 
of scholarship which they display, are 
alike amazing. Few private theological 
libraries contain so much matter of a 
quality that is so uniformly excellent. 
To the minister, the pastor, the church 
oflBcial, and the theological student the 
Britannica offers a fund of information 
and a wealth of knowledge which can 
be derived from no other single publica- 
tion in the English language. It is not 
the intention in this chapter to point 
out all the articles that relate to theo- 
logical or religious subjects. To do so 
would oblige us to go beyond the limi- 
tations assigned to this volume. It will 
be sufficient to name a few of the most 
important subjects, as the reader, when 
once fairly introduced into this de- 
partment of knowledge, will be able 
readily to refer to others of a similar 
character. 



Five Great 
Religions 



I. RELIGIONS. 

The special article on the religious 
beliefs and modes of divine worship 
peculiar to different tribes, 
nations, and communities, 
written by Professor C. P. 
Tiele, of the University of Leyden, XX, 
370-84, will be an excellent introduction 
to this course of study. It may be fol- 
lowed by the reading of such additional 
articles as these: 

1. Christianity, V, 598-610, a compre- 
hensive survey of the history and influ- 
ence of Christianity, by Professor T. M. 
Lindsay, of Free Church College, Glas- 
gow. 

2. Judaism. See the two articles, Is- 
rael, XIII, 406-41, and Jews, XIII, 690- 
98. These articles are chiefly historical, 
the first by Dr. Julius Wellhausen, of 
the University of Halle; the second by 
Israel Davis, of London. See also Jews 
in the United States, XXVII, 464. 

3. Brahmanism, IV, 182-90, by Dr. 
Julius Eggeling, of the University of 
Edinburgh. 

4. Buddhism, IV, 381-92, by Dr. T. W. 
Rhys Davids, of London. 

(191) 



192 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIC A 



Otber Beliefs 



5. Mohammedanism, XVI, 568-628, a 
very comprehensive article in three 
parts: 

Part I. Mohammed, by Professor 
Wellhausen. 

Part II. The Eastern Caliphate, by 
Professor Stanislas Guyard. 

Part III. The Koran, by Professor 
Noldeke. 

Besides the above, there are special 
articles on all other religious beliefs and 
systems that have ever ex- 
erted any considerable influ- 
ence upon the thought of mankind. 
The following articles will be interest- 
ing to many readers: 

Animism, II, 49-52. 

Fetichism, IX, 103. 

Druidism, VII, 412. 

Zoroastrianism, XXIV, 861; XVIII, 
618. 

For an account of the religion pecul- 
iar to any given country, see the article 
devoted to that country; for example: 

Religion in Mexico, XVI, 219 a. 

Religion of Hottentots, XII, 325 a.' 

Religions in India, XII, 821 b.'" 

Religion in Abyssinia, I, 63. 

Religion in Africa, I, 237. 

Religion of gypsies, X, 549, etc. 

II. BELIEF IN GOD. 

Closely allied in thought to the arti- 
cles mentioned above are such as the 
following: 

Theism, XXIII, 253-69. This embraces 
a survey of primeval religious ideas, 
with notices of polytheism, monothe- 
ism, trinitarianism, unitarianism, deism, 
mysticism, agnosticism, etc. 

Deism, VII, 31. 

Theosophy, XXIII, 298; XXIX, 267; 
Madame Blavatsky, XXV, 502; William 
Q. Judge, XXVII, 468; Annie Besant, 
XXV, 443. 



Kabbalah, XIII, 820. 

Rationalism, XX, 301. 

Agnosticism, XXV, 85. 

Idolatry, XII, 737. 

Fetichism, IX, 103. 

See also God, in Index volume, p. 385. 

III. DOCTRINE, ETC. 

Read the special article on Theology, 
XXIII, 280-96; also the following: 
Apologetics, II, 166; XXVI, 597. 

Christian EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY, 

Doctrine XXVI, 597. 

Dogmatic, VII, 288-97, a " branch of 
theological study which treats of the 
doctrines of Christianity." 

Hermeneutics, XI, 663-69, "which 
treats of Scripture interpretation." 

Harmony of the Gospels, XXVII, 233. 

EscHATOLOGY, VIII, 472-76, " the doc- 
trine of the last things." 

Creeds, VI, 494-500, "authorized for- 
mularies of Christian doctrine." 

To these longer articles many others 
might be added, such as: 

Immortality. See Butler, IV, 520; 
Plato, XIX, 210, 221; Vedanta, XXIV, 
128-30. 

Christology, XXVI, 166. 

Incarnation, X, 721; XXVI, 166. 

The Holy Ghost, XXVII, 307. 

Procession of the Holy Spirit, XXVIII, 
495; XI, 139 b.' 

Predestination, XIX, 688-91. 

Atonement, XXV, 288. 

Imputation, XXVII, 368. 

Justification, XXVII, 470. 

Inspiration, XIII, 161. 

Sanctification, XVIII, 435. 

Prophecy, XIX, 836. 

Anthropomorphism, II, 109. 

Transubstantiation, VIII, 573; XXVIII, 
609. 

Consubstantiation, XXVI, 271-72. 

Perfectionism, XXVIII, 386. 



THE PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN 



193 



Antichrist, II, 109. 
Apocalyptic Literature, II, 153. 
Apostasy, II, 169. 
Heresy, XI, 655. 
Arminianism, XXV, 242. 
Episcopacy, VIII, 430-37. 
Apostolic Succession, XXV, 211. 
Indulgence, XII, 887. 
Immaculate Conception, XII, 753, 
Consecration, VI, 260. 
Absolution, I, 58. 
Angel, II, 25-27. 
Angelus Domini, XXV, 192. 
Ave Maria, XXV, 307. 
Beatification, XXV, 398. 
Confession, VI, 228-29. 
Confirmation, VI, 229. 
Eucharist, VIII, 571-74. 
Holy Water, XII, 109. 
Missal, XVI, 531-34. 
Penance, XVIII, 495-99. 
Purgatory, XX, 120-21. 
Sacrament, XXI, 140. 
Sacrifice, XXI, 141-48. 
Sacrilege, XXI, 148. 
Incense, XII, 756-60. 
See also the references to Christianity 
and Church History, below. 

IV. CHRISTIANITY, 

Christianity, V, 598; creeds of, VI, 
494; doctrines of, VII, 288; ethics of, VIII, 
518; theology of, XXIII, 258. 

Christ, V, 597. 

The testimony of the Gospels of Jesus 
Christ, XIII, 670. 

Christology, XXVI, 166. 

Church, V, 663. 

Views of Christianity by famous writ- 
ers and philosophers: 

Origen's, XVII, 863. 

Irenseus's, XIII, 279. 

Clement's, V, 716. 

Lessings, XIV, 481 b. 

Locke's, XIV, 762. 

(13) 



Kousseau's, XIII, 680. 
Voltaire's, IX, 592. 

1. Roman Catholic Church, XXVIII, 
608, an important and very "compre- 
hensive article by Cardinal 
Christian Gibbons; should be read in 
and Sects Connection with the general 
article on the same subject, 
XX, 644-47, by P. L. Connellan, of Rome, 
See also Popedom, XIX, 502-24. 

This last-named article is designed to 
give the main outlines of the history of 
the Papacy as an institution. A list of 
the popes is given at the end; and read- 
ers wishing to extend their knowledge 
of this subject by becoming acquainted 
with the personal history of the pontiffs 
may do so by referring to the special 
articles in the Britannica relating re- 
spectively to the different popes. The 
method of electing a pope is described 
in XXVIII, 610. The following articles 
may also be read: 

Catholic, V, 207. For the first use of 
this name, see V, 10. 

Catholics in America, XXVIII, 611. 

Titles in the Catholic Church, XXIX, 
293. 

Archbishops, II, 323. 

Bishops, III, 683. 

Abbot, I, 27. 

Acolyte, I, 92. 

Celibacy, V, 254. 

Propaganda, XIX, 831. 

Ultramontanism, XXIX, 351. 

History of Monasticism, I, 20-27, to 
be read in connection with 

Monachism, XVI, 724; 

Asceticism, II, 591; 

Religious Brotherhoods, XXV, 610; 

Franciscans, IX, 614; 

Dominicans, VII, 307; XIII, 99; 

Benedictines, III, 481; VIII, 334; XXV, 
424; and 



194 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Carthusians, V, 143: I, 25. 
Jesuits, XIII, 656; XVIII, 441; XXVII, 
449. 
Passionists, XXVIII, 345. 
Paulist Fathers, XXVIII, 364. 
Trappists, XXIII, 556. 
Acoemetae (sleepless monks), I, 92. 
Sisters of Charity, XXVI, 117. 
Old Catholics, XVII, 775. 

2. Greek Church, XI, 137. 
Stundists of Russia, XXI, 90; XXIX, 186. 

3. Armenian Church, II, 481. 

4. Protestantism, XX, 332. Of the 
sects of Protestantism a very large num- 
ber are noticed in separate articles in 
the Britannica. The following will indi- 
cate the scope and character of these 
articles: 

Adventists, XVI, 332; XXV, 52. 

African Methodist Episcopal Church, 
XXV, 83. 

Baptists, HI, 304; Freewill Baptists, 
IX, 670; Baptists in the United States, 

XXV, 353. This article includes brief 
accounts of all the different bodies of 
Baptists now in this country. 

Catholic Apostolic, V, 207. 

Christian Brethren, XIX, 250. 

Christian Alliance, XXVI, 164. 

Congregationalists, VI, 238; in the 
United States, XXVI, 254. 

Disciples of Christ, XXVI, 423. 

Dissenters, or Nonconformists, XVII, 
546; XXVI, 424. 

Episcopal: Church of England, VIII, 
332; Protestant Episcopal Church of the 
United States, VIII, 437; Methodism, 
XVI, 192-93. 

Evangelical Association, VIII, 636; 

XXVI, 594. 

Free Church of England, XXVII, 32. 
Friends, orQuakers, XXVII, 41 ; XX,154. 
Independents, XII, 761. 



Latter-day Saints, or Mormons, XXVII, 
550. 

Lutherans, XV, 85; in the United 
States, XXVII, 645. 

Mennonites, XVI, 15; XXVIII, 70. 

Methodists, XVI, 192; in the United 
States, XXVIII, 79. 

Moravian Brethren, XVI, 837; XXVIII, 
135. 

Mormons, XVI. 852. 

New Jerusalem Church, XXII, 797; 
XXVIII, 212. 

Nonconformists, see Dissenters, above. 

Presbyterians, XIX, 696; XXVIII, 479; 
Cumberland Presbyterians, XXVI, 332. 

Protestant Episcopal Church, XXVIII, 
506. 

Quakers, see Friends, above. 

Reformed Church, XX, 352; Alliance 
of Reformed Churches, XXV, 138; Re- 
formed Church in America, XXVIII, 568. 

Salvation Army, XXVIII, 658. 

Spiritualists, XXII, 419; II, 181. 

United Brethren, XXIII, 774; XXIX, 
356. 

Unitarians, XXIII, 772; XXIX, 354. 

Universalists, XXIII, 886; XXIX, 399. 

To these might be added an extensive 
list, embracing such names as the fol- 
lowing: 

Abecedarians, XXV, 24. 

Antinomians, II, 114. 

Aquarians, II, 189. 

Annihilationists, VIII, 475. 

Annunciada, XXV, 197. 

Hussites, XII, 422. 

niuminati, XII, 745. 

Latitudinarians, XXVII, 550. 

Christadelphians, XXVI, 163. 

The Arminian Nunnery, XXVI, 632 
(Ferrar). 

Winebrennerians, XXVI, 171. 

But it is unnecessary to attempt a 
complete list. The reader who so de- 
sires will now be able to continue the 



THE PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN 



195 



investigation of this subject without 
further assistance from the Guide. 

V. CHURCH HISTORY. 

As an introduction to another valu- 
able course of reading, take the article 
entitled Church History, V, 664. 

The number of special articles, bio- 
graphical and historical, relating to the 
history of the Christian Church may be 
estimated from the followring incom- 
plete list of subjects v^hich receive 
treatment in the first volume alone: 

Volume 1: Saint Adalbert, p. 124 
Adam of Bremen, p. 128; Adiaphorists 
p. 140; Adoption Controversy, p. 149 
Adrian, p. 150; ^Etius, p. 202; Agelnoth 
p. 249; Johannes, Agricola, p. 259 
Aidan, p. 377; St. Alban, p. 395 
Albert (Cardinal Archbishop), p 
400; Albigenses, p. 402; Alcock, p. 415 
Alcuin, p. 417; Aldred, p. 420; Aleandro, 
p. 421; Alesius, p. 423; Alexander of 
Hales, p. 429; Popes Alexander, pp. 430- 
33; Alleine, p. 512; Amalric of Bena, 
p. 574; Amat, p. 574; St. Ambrose, 
p. 582; Amsdorf, p. 683; Amyraut, p. 
686. 

Instead of continuing this list so as to 

cover in the same way the remaining 

twenty-three volumes of the 

^^ofTopics Britannica, the Guide deems 

it suflBcient to name merely a 

few of the most important subjects. 

The history of the Christian Church 
may be said to begin with the preaching 
of St. Peter on the day of Pentecost. 
See, therefore, St. Peter, XVIII, 707; 
Pentecost, XVIII, 525; Acts of the Apos- 
tles, I, 114. After these, read: 

Saint Paul, XVIII, 425. 

Saint John, XIII, 717. 

Saint Andrew, II, 20. 

Revelation, XX, 510. 

Apollos, II, 165. 



Apostolic Fathers, II, 171. 
Gnosticism, X, 625-28. 
Philo, XVIII, 773-78. 
Saint Anthony, II, 94, 
Saint Augustine, HI, 69. 
Justin Martyr, XIII, 799. 
The four Saint Gregories, XI, 160-63. 
Arius, II, 471. 

Saint Fulgentius, XXVII, 46. 
Saint Athanasius, II, 725. 
Basil the Great, III, 355. 
Chrysostom, V, 660. 
Eusebius, VIII, 632. 
Irenseus, XIII, 279. 
Cyril of Alexandria, VI, 663. 
Nestorius, XVII, 364. 
Polycarp, XIX, 428. 
Saint Barbara, XXV, 357. 
Saint Agnes, XXV, 85. 
Saint Epiphanius, VIII, 428. 
Saint Alban, I, 395. 
Sylvester, XXII, 81. 
Bede, III, 415. 
Saint Bridget, IV, 309. 
Saint Bernard, III, 519. 
Crispin and Crispiniau, VI, 522. 
Saint Boniface, IV, 30. 
Lanfranc, XIV, 283. 
Anselm, II, 81. 
Arnold of Brescia, II, 546. 
Thomas a Kempis, XIV, 33. 
Saint Benedict, HI, 481. 
Saint Dominic, VII, 306. 
Saint Francis, IX, 609; Franciscans, 
IX, 614. 
The Jesuits, XIII, 656. 
History of Monasticism, I, 20. 
Monachism, XVI, 724-43. 
Capuchins, V, 71. 
Carthusians, V, 143. 
Carmelites, V, 102. 
Celestines, V, 253. 
Flagellants, IX, 245. 
Cloister, VI, 35. 
Asceticism, II, 591. 



196 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Saint Simecn Stylites, XVI, 727 b. 

Saint Dunstau, VII, 471. 

Manichseism, XV, 489. 

The Albigenses, I, 402. 

The Lollards, XIV, 819. 

The Waldenses, XXIV, 343. 

The Council of Basel, III, 358. 

The Inquisition, XIII, 98. 

Francis Xavier, XXIV, 752. 

John Wycliffe, XXIV, 744. 

Zwingli, XXIV, 871. 

Erasmus, VIII, 458. 

Martin Luther, XV, 78. 

John Huss, XII, 419. 
John Calvin, IV, 632. 

The Huguenots, XII, 351. 
The Reformation, XX, 332. 
Council of Trent, XXIII, 578. 
Propaganda, XIX, 831-34. 
Thomas Cranmer, VI, 485. 
John Knox, XIV, 131. 
William Laud, XIV, 347. 
Puritanism in England, VIII, 305. 
George Fox, IX, 441. 
John Bunyan, IV, 470. 
John Wesley, XXIV, 531; VIII, 318. 
Emanuel Swedenborg, XXII, 796. 
Leo XIII, XXVII, 577. 
James Freeman Clarke, XXVI, 186. 
Alexander Campbell, XXVI, 29. 
Henry Ward Beecher, XXV, 407. 
Lyman Abbott, XXV, 16. 
Frederic W. Farrar, XXVI, 622. 
Charles H. Parkhurst, XXVIII, 
334. 

William Booth, XXV, 546. 
Christian Missions, XVI, 534. 
Sunday Schools, XXIX, 195. 
Ep worth League, XXVI, 583. 
Christian Endeavor, Society of, XXVI, 
164. 

Young Men's Christian Association, 
XXIX, 623. 

Young Women's Christian Associa- 
tion, XXIX, 624. 



Woman's Christian Temperance 
Union, XXIX, 581. 

Society for the Promotion of Chris- 
tian Knowledge, XXVI, 165 

VI. FORMS, CEREMONIES, AND RELIGIOUS 
PRACTICES. 

The Seven Sacraments: 
Baptism, III, 300. 
Confirmation, VI, 229. 
Eucharist, VIII, 571; XXVII, 326. 
Penance, XVIII, 495. 
Exreme Unction, VIII, 712. 
Holy Orders, XVII, 844; XXVIII, 609. 
Matrimony, XXVIII, 609. 

Ecclesiastical Costumes, VI, 407. 
Ablution, I, 52. 
Ritualists, XXVIII, 596. 
Mass, XXVIII, 614. 
Apostles' Creed, II, 170. 
Apostles' Canons, II, 170. 
The Litany, XIV, 701. 
The Catechism, V, 191. 
Confession, VI, 228. 
Anointing, II, 80. 
Holy Water, XII, 109. 
Adoration, I, 149. 
Incense, XII, 756. 
Rosary, XX, 871. 
Breviary, IV, 235. 
Missal, XVI, 531. 
Absolution, I, 58. 

Excommunication, VIII, 698; Bell, 
Book, and Candle, XXV, 417. 
Stigmatization, XXII, 576. 
Fasting, IX, 40. 
Sacrifice, XXI, 141. 
Pilgrimage, XIX, 99. 
Love Feasts, XVI, 196; I, 245. 
Vows, XXIV, 321. 
Hymns, XII, 612-31. 
Dies Irse, XXVI, 417. 
Kyrie Eleison! XXVII, 524. 
Peters-Pence, XXVIII, 395. 



THE PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN 



197 



VII. HOLY DAYS, FEASTS, ETC. 

Sunday, XXII, 687. 
Christmas, V, 611. 

Lent, XIV, 447. 
peasts Palm Sunday, XVIII, 202. 

Days^"'"' Passion Week, XVIII, 348. 

Good Friday, X, 688. 
Easter, VII, 531. 

All Saints' Day, I, 509; XXV, 138. 
All Souls' Day, XXV, 141. 
Atonement Day, VIII, 705. 
Candlemas, IV, 710. 
Corpus Christi, VI, 386. 
Feast of the Annunciation, II, 80. 
Feast of the Assumption, II, 642. 
Epiphany, VIII, 428. 

VIII. CHURCH GOVERNMENT, ETC. 

Popedom, XIX, 502-24. 

Pope, see Index volume, p. 719. 

Cardinal, V, 85; XXVI, 59. 

Conclave of Cardinals, XXVI, 247. 

Eoman Congregations, XXVI, 255. 

Patriarch, III, 684. 

Bishop, III, 683. 

Presbyter, XIX, 694. 

Clergy, V, 722. 
"".TcVurcu Dean, VII, 14. 
Acolyte, I, 92. 

Abbe, I, 16. 

Abbess, I, 16; abbot, 27. 

Abbreviators, I, 34. 

Advocatus diaboli (devil's advocate), 
XXV, 54. 

Catechumen, V, 192. 

Canon, V, 15. 

Defender of the marriage tie, XXVI, 
382. 

Parson, XVIII, 333. 

Vicar, XVIII, 301. 

Curate, VI, 626. 

Legate, XIV, 412. 

Archbishop, II, 323. 

Priest, XIX, 743. 

Deacon, VII, 3; deaconess, VII, 3. 



Archdeacon, II, 324. 
Almoner, I, 524. 
Nun, XVI, 725; monk, XVI, 724. 
Neophyte, XVII, 341. 
Canon law, V, 15-21. 
Apostolic canons, II, 170. 
The Augsburg Confession, VI, 499 b.' 
The Thirty-nine Articles, II, 571. 
The Westminster Confession, VI, 
500 a.'" 

IX. THE BIBLE. 

For a general discussion of questions 
relating to the Bible and its circulation 
to the year 1875, see Bible, III, 548-61. 
For a comprehensive account of its cir- 
culation since 1875, see XXV, 449-63. 
This latter article contains specimen 
extracts from Bibles printed in 242 lan- 
guages and dialects. It is followed by 
a list of the Bible Societies of the world, 
XXV, 463, giving the number of Bibles 
issued by each society since its organi- 
zation. 

Inspiration of the Bible, XIII, 161. 

The Septuagint, XXI, 699. 

Wycliffe's Bible, XXIV, 746. 

Tyndale's Bible, XXIII, 717. 

The Geneva Bible, VIII, 347. 

The Breeches Bible, VIII, 347. 

King James's Version, VIII, 347. 

The Douay Bible, XXVI, 440. 

Bible Societies, III, 561; XXV, 463. 

Bible glosses, X, 612. 

Spinoza on Biblical Criticism, XXII, 
417. 

The Higher Criticism, XXVI, 311. 

Origen on Biblical Criticism, XVII, 
865; Baur, III, 387-89; De Wette, VII, 
124; Morinus, XVI, 851. 

Revision of the Bible, XXVIII, 581. 

See also Chapter XIX in this Guide, 
entitled Readings for Bible Students. 

See Theological Education, XXIX, 
263-66. 



CHAPTER LV 



The Philanthropist and Keformer 

" Love all, trust a few ; do wrong to none." 

—AlVs Well That Ends Well. 



Philanthropy, in its broadest sense, 
is love of mankind manifested in deeds 

of kindness to one's fellows. 
^thrTpy ^liil^ t^e ultimate object of 

all philanthropists is the same 
— the mitigation of misfortune and the 
consequent betterment of all conditions 
of life — the methods which they pursue 
are widely different, and the immediate 
ends toward which they aim are many 
and various. Some labor in missions, 
believing that in the spread of the Gospel 
of Christ there is the surest means of 
promoting human happiness. Some de- 
vote their energies to measures of re- 
form, hoping that by effecting certain 
changes, whether in the political or the 
social world, mankind may be elevated 
to a higher plane of existence. Some 
have been fearless antagonists of slavery 
and other forms of oppression, and their 
voices have always championed the 
cause of the weak, the downtrodden, 
and the poor. Some labor in behalf of 
prison reform, and strive to bring about 
better and more humane methods of 
dealing with criminals. Some are active 
in deeds of charity and in the promotion 
of means to improve the condition of 
the poor. And so each philanthropist 
works in his own held ; but all are actu- 
ated by the same impulse — the impulse 
of sympathy and love, the impulse to do 
good to suffering humanity. To all who 
are interested either directly or indi- 
rectly in any form of philanthropical 
effort, the Eyicyclopcedia Britannica offers 

(198) 



a mine of valuable information. The 
following lists of references, although 
by no means exhaustive, will be of as- 
sistance to everyone who seeks to know 
more about the active benevolences of 
the world. 

For a comparison between Pagan and 
Christian philanthropy, see VIII, 519. 

I. mission and missionaries. 

List of missionary societies, XVI, 538. 
Christian missions, XVI, 534. 

Missions in China, XIX, 

Missionaries g^^; XVI, 540. 

Missions in India, XIX, 833; XXIV, 752. 

Missions in Japan, XVI, 540; XIII, 662. 

Roman Catholic propaganda, XIX, 831. 

The Jesuit system of missions, XIII, 
662, 664; XX, 550; in North America, 
XXVII, 449. 

Baptist missions. III, 306. 

Methodist missions, XVI, 539. 

Moravian missions, XVI, 539 b", 837. 

The McAll mission in France, XXVII, 
654. 

Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the In- 
dies, XXIV, 752. 

John Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians, 
VIII, 128; XVI, 537; XVII, 249. 

Robert Morrison, missionary to China, 
XVI, 873. 

William Carey, the father of Prot- 
estant missions, V, 90. 

Adoniram Judson, missionary to India, 
XIII, 776. 

Father Jogues, Jesuit missionary 
among the Mohawks, XXVII, 452. 



THE PHILANTHROPIST AND REFORMER 



199 



John Williams, missionary, XXIV, 617. 
Henry Martyn, missionary to Persia, 

XV, 593; XVIII, 660. 

Thomas Gage, first missionary to 
Mexico, XXVII, 53. 
Robert Moffat, African missionary, 

XVI, 566. 

David Livingstone, XIV, 726; I, 222. 

William Goodell, missionary in Tur- 
key, XXVII, 123. 

Stephen Grellet, French Quaker mis- 
sionary, XXVII, 170. 

Robert W. McAll, founder of the Mc- 
All missions, XXVII, 654. 

Samuel Marsden, the Apostle of New 
Zealand, XVII, 484. 

William A. P. Martin, president of 
Tungwen College, Pekin, XXVIII, 38. 

II. FRIENDS OF HUMANITY. 

Thomas Joseph Barnardo, " father of 
the don't-live-anywheres," XXV, 364. 

Henri Dunant, founder of the Red 
Cross Society, XXVIII, 563. 

Clara Barton, president of 
^^thropists ^^^ American Red Cross So- 
ciety, XXV, 374. 

Charles Loring Brace, XXV, 565. 

Baroness Burdett-Coutts, XXV, 648. 

Mary Carpenter, XXVI, 69. 

George W. Childs, XXVI, 152. 

Peter Cooper, XXVI, 277. 

Elizabeth Fry, English Quakeress, IX, 
706. 

Edward Denison, originator of " uni- 
versity settlements," XXVI, 395. 

Sarah Piatt Doremus, XXVI, 439. 

Henry Towle Durant, founder of Wel- 
lesley College, XXVI, 469. 

Abigail Hopper Gibbons, XXVII, 92. 

Stephen Girard, founder of Girard 
College, X, 554; XXVII, 100. • 

Baron Hirsch, the Jewish philanthro- 
pist, XXVII, 295 ; Philanthropies of 
American Jews, XXVII, 467. 



Johns Hopkins, XXVII, 319. 

Dr. Samuel G. Howe, XXVII, 331. 

James Lenox, founder of Lenox Li- 
brary, XXVII, 577. 

James Lick, founder of Lick Observa- 
tory, XXVII, 591. 

Sir Josiah Mason, founder of alms- 
houses and orphanages, XXVIII, 43. 

Sir Moses Montefiore, XXVIII, 130. 

George Muller, founder of orphans' 
homes, England, XXVIII, 158. 

Florence Nightingale, XXVIII, 246. 

George Peabody ,XVIII,452 :XXVIII,367. 

Samuel Plimsoll, "the sailors' friend," 

XXVIII, 441. 

Enoch Pratt, founder of Pratt Li- 
brary, XXVIII, 478. 

Charles Pratt, founder of Pratt Insti- 
tute, XXVIII, 477. 

Matthew Vassar, philanthropist and 
founder of the Society for the Preven- 
tion of Cruelty to Animals, XXIX, 423. 

George Williams, founder of the 
Young Men's Christian Association, 

XXIX, 556. 

Sisters of Mercy, XXVIII, 73. 

Sisters of Charity, XVI, 739. 

John Howard, the father of prison re- 
form, XII, 333. 

Elizabeth Fry, IX, 706. 
Theodor Fliedner, German 
philanthropist, IX, 268. 

Enoch Cobb Wines, founder of the 
National Prison Association, XXIX, 567. 

The Prison Discipline Society, XIX, 
769. 

The Howard Association, XXVII, 330. 

The following references maybe found 
interesting and valuable in connection 
with any study of human benevolence : 

The Sanitary Commission, XXVIII, 668. 

Woman's Relief Corps, XXIX, 582. 

Red Cross Society, XXVIII, 563. 

The education of defective, dependent, 
and criminal classes, XXIX, 30. 



Prisoners' 
Friends 



200 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Reformatories, XXVIII, 567. 

University Settlements, XXIX, 403. 

Charity organizations, XXVI, 114. 

Law and Order Societies, XXVII, 556. 

Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty 
to Children, XXVI, 151. 

Almshouses, XXV, 144; XIX, 480. 

Almsgiving in relation to Poor-laws, 
XIX, 477. 

The Montyon Prizes (rewards for sig- 
nal instances of philanthropy), XXVIII, 
133. 

Poor-laws, XIX, 476; XXVIII, 457. 

English Poorhouses, XIX, 482. 

Nursing, XXVIII, 266. 

Hospitals, XII, 314. 

Bellevue Hospital, XXV, 418. 

Guy's Hospital, XXVII, 204. 

Foundling Hospitals, IX, 425. 

Ambulance Association, XXV, 157. 

Ambulance, I, 584. 

Tenement Life, XXIX, 247. 

III. ANTI-SLAVERY LEADERS. 

Abolitionists, XXII, 149; XXV, 28. 

Abolition of slavery in the United 
States, XXIII, 800-804-807-817. 

Abolition of slavery in the British 
colonies, VIII, 327 b. 

Clarkson on slavery, V, 710. 

The Quakers' opposition to slavery, 
XVIII, 507. 

John Woolman, XXIX, 590. 

President Jefferson's opposition to 
slavery, XIII, 625. 

Emancipation in the United States, 
XXIII, 817. 

William Wilberforce, XXIV, 596. 

William Forster, XXVII, 9. 

John Brown, IV, 346; XI, 438. 

William Lloyd Garrison, X, 78; XVII, 
445; XXII, 150. 

Joshua R. Giddings, XXVII, 94. 

Wendell Phillips, I, 634; XXVIII, 407. 

Samuel May, XXVIII, 54. 



Elijah P. Lovejoy, XXII, 150; XXVII, 
636. 

Owen Lovejoy, XXVII, 637. 

James Russell Lowell, XXVII, 638. 

Benjamin Lundy, XXVII, 644. 

James G. Birney, XXV, 483. 

Elizur Wright, XXIX, 605. 

Anna Dickinson, XXVI, 414. 

Harriet Beecher Stowe, XXIX, 169. 

Henry B. Stanton, XXIX, 151. 

John Greenleaf Whittier, I, 644. 

John C. Fremont, XXVII, 36. 

Abraham Lincoln, XIV, 665. 

Frederick Douglass, XXVI, 442. 

See also the following articles: His- 
tory of Slavery, XXII, 137; Ancient 
Slavery, XIX, 361; the Slave-trade, XXII, 
146; British and Foreign Anti-Slavery 
Society, XXV, 600; Freedmen's Bureau, 
XXVII, 33. 

iv. reforms and reformers. 

1. The Woman-Suffrage Movement. 
The first convention in the United 

States to advocate Women's suffrage 
was held at Seneca Falls, N. Y., in 1848. 
Four women were present. 

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, XXIX, 150. 

Lucretia Mott, XXVIII, 152. 

Lucy Stone, XXIX, 165. 

Susan B. Anthony, XXV, 201. 

Mary A. Livermore, XXVII, 612. 

Antoinette Brown Blackwell, XXV,495. 

Amelia Bloomer, inventor of the 
" Bloomer costume," XXV, 509. 

Emily Faithfull, XXVI, 613. 

Millicent Garrett Fawcett, XXVI, 624. 

Ellen H. Foster, XXVII, 14. 

May Wright Sewall, XXIX, 66. 

Women's clubs, XXVI, 205. 

Education and enfranchisement of 
women, XXIX, 579. 

2. The Temperance Movement. 
Liquor laws, XIV, 694; XXVII, 605. 
Temperance legislation, XIV, 694. 



THE PUBLIC SPEAKER 



201 



Prohibition laws, XXVII, 606. 

Option laws, XXVII, 606. 

South Carolina dispensary system, 
XXVII, 607. 

The Gothenburg system, XXVII, 608. 

Raines liquor law, XXVII, 607. 

The Prohibition Party, XXVIII, 495. 

Temperance societies, XXIII, 174. 

Woman's Christian Temperance 
Union, XXIX, 581. 

Temperance legislation in thd United 
States, XXVII, 605. 

Father Mathew societies, XV, 638. 

GoodTemplars, XXIII, 175; XXVII, 608. 

Theobald Mathew, XV, 638. 



John B. Gough, XXVII, 131. 
Frances E. Willard, XXIX, 554. 

3. Social Reformees. 

Felix Adler, founder of the Society 
for Ethical Culture, XXV, 49 ; XXVI, 591. 

Charles Bradlaugh, English agitator 
and social reformer, XXV, 568. 

Anthony Comstock, champion of so- 
cial purity, XXVI, 246. 

Elbridge T. Gerry, president of the 
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Children, XXVII, 88. 

Society for Ethical Culture, XXVI, 
591. 



CHAPTER LVI 
The Public Speaker 

Mend your speech a little, 

Lest it may mar your fortunes. "^ — King Lear, 



He who would excel as a public 
speaker must in the first place possess 
a thorough mastery of words. He must 
be able to express his thoughts in a 
manner which is, at the same time, 
pleasing, forcible, and convincing. He 
must have a minute and comprehensive 
knowledge of everything pertaining to 
the subject which he undertakes to dis- 
cuss ; and he must understand the secret 
influences and methods by which the 
minds of his hearers may be moved and 
their actions determined. A mastery of 
words and of correct and elegant lan- 
guage may be acquired by the study of 
rhetoric and its kindred branches (see 
Chapter LIX, entitled The Writer, in this 
Guide). A knowledge of the subject to 
be discussed must be obtained by care- 
ful investigation, by personal experi- 



ence, and by the study of books. One's 
understanding of the human mind and 
its motives may be improved by the 
study of philosophy, and especially that 
division of the science w^hich is usually 
called psychology (see the references in 
Chapter LVIII, entitled The Teacher, in 
this Guide). 

Very much may be learned by studying 
the methods of famous orators of former 
times. Would you know the 
Greek and methods by which Demos- 
thenes made himself the 
greatest orator of all time? 
and would you understand something 
of the distinctive qualities of his ora- 
tory ? Read the article in the Britannica, 
VII, 63; then read of the characteristics 
of Greek oratory in general, XI, 127. 
Read of Antiphon, the most ancient of 



Roman 
Oratory 



202 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



British 
Oratory 



Greek orators, 11, 118; of Isgeus, XIII, 
386; of Hyperides, XII, 631; of Lysias, 
XV, 118; of Isocrates, XIII, 398; and of 
Andocides, II, 18. 

Then see what is said about Roman 
oratory, XX, 738. Eead of Cicero, V, 
673, and XX, 528; of Hortensius, XII, 
214; of Marcus Antonius, II, 123; of 
Domitius Afer, I, 203; of Julius Csesar, 
IV, 562, and XX, 740. 

Then, coming down to the oratory of 
modern times, read of Lord Chatham, 
V, 381; of Burke, IV, 486; of 
Richard B. B. Sheridan, XXI, 
833; of Fox, IX, 441 a; of the 
younger Pitt, XIX, 143; of Grattan, XI, 
54; of Brougham, IV, 337; of Lord 
Derby, VII, 95; of Robert Hall, XI, 349. 
Finally, arriving at the study of our 
American orators, read I, 633, and I, 
634. Then turn to the article on 
Patrick Henry, XI, 602; and 
afterward to those on Fisher 
Ames, I, 645; Daniel Webster, 
XXIV, 498; Henry Clay, V, 714; John C. 
Calhoun, IV, 606; Edward Everett, VIII, 
646. 

The rules that govern argumentative 
bodies should be thoroughly understood 
by every public speaker. Hence refer 
to 

Parliamentary law, XXVIII, 336. 

Parliamentary procedure, XVIII, 317. 

Quorum, XXVIII, 528. 

Once started in this course of reading, 
you will be surprised at the large num- 
ber of additional subjects which will 
suggest themselves; and if you are in 
earnest you will need no guide to point 
out their whereabouts in the Britannica. 
You will be able to depend upon and 
help yourself. 

As an example of the manner in which 
a single subject may be studied with a 
view to its discussion in public, let us 



American 
Oratory 



suppose that we are preparing a lecture 

on temperance. What help can the 

Encyclopcedia Briiannica give 

Temper- you? Let US scc. That the 

ance wiscst of ancieut philosophers 

Lecturer , i n j 

advocated temperance, see 

XXII, 249, and II, 591; and that they 
declared it to be one of the cardinal 
virtues, see VIII, 511. 

Read of Bacchus, VII, 216, and XVII, 
863. 

Then, coming to later times, study the 
valuable article on Drunkenness, VII, 
416; also Liquor Laws, XIV, 694, and 
XXVII, 605; Temperance Societies, 

XXIII, 174; Good Templars, XXIII, 175. 
Prisons, XIX, 766. 

Poorhouses, XIX, 482. 

Other articles and sections which may 
be read at pleasure are: 

Theobald Mathew, XV, 638. 

John B. Gough, XXVII, 131. 

Neal Dow, XXVI, 443. 

Prohibition laws, XXVII, 606. 

Option laws, XXVII, 606. 

South Carolina dispensary system, 
XXVII, 607. 

The Gothenburg dispensary plan, 
XXVII, 608. 

Raines liquor law, XXVII, 607. 

Prohibition Party, XXVIII, 495. 

Father Mathew societies, XV, 638. 

Woman's Christian Temperance 
Union, XXIX, 581-82. 

Alcoholic beverages, XXV, 123. 

Distillation of spirits, VII, 229. 

Brewing, IV, 236; fermentation, XXIV, 
633. 

Brewing in the United States, XXV, 
584. 

Brandy, IV, 194. 

Whisky, XXIV, 572. 

Effects of whisky, XVIII, 417. 

Wine, XXIV, 633. 

Ale, I, 421 



THE BOOKMAN 



203 



Absinthe, I, 57. 

Arrack, II, 549. 

Gin, X, 537. 

Liqueurs, XIV, 692. 

Perry, XVIII, 568; 
and in like manner through the entire 
list of intoxicating beverages. To these 
may be added such articles as 

The Keeley Gold-cure, XXVII, 482. 

Delirium tremens, VII, 45. 

Insanity, XIII, 101; in relation to 
crime, VI, 517. 

Heredity, I, 82; IV, 219; VIII, 534; 
XIII, 102; and XXVII, 275. 

The list of books and other publica- 
tions which advocate the cause of tem- 
perance, XXIII, 175, will be found of 
much value in directing you to further 
research. 



So much for the lecturer on temper- 
ance. The political speaker will find a 
selection of references for his 
°?peakers sp^cial use in Chapter XLII, 
entitled The American Citi- 
zen ; the pulpit orator will find an ex- 
tensive array of references in Chapter 
LIV, entitled The Preacher and Theolo- 
gian ; and, generally speaking, the vari- 
ous subjects adapted to public presenta- 
tion and discussion receive due notice 
in this Guide, each under its special 
heading. Hence it is unnecessary to 
multiply examples here. 

The would-be orator, however, no 
matter what may be his theme, is rec- 
ommended to follow out the course of 
reading suggested in Chapter LIX, en- 
titled The Writer. 



CHAPTER LVII 

The Bookman 

"Come, and take choice of all my library." — Titus Andronicus, 
"We turned o'er many books together."— JfercAan^ of Venice. 



Tlie Book 
Lover 



To THE lover of books the Encyclo- 
pcedia Britannica is itself a great and 
inestimable treasure, the com- 
panion of leisure hours, the 
helper in time of need, the one 
indispensable portion of his library. No 
other single collection of volumes in the 
world furnishes so complete an equip- 
ment for all the business of life. With- 
out the Britannica no scholar's library 
is complete ; without it no bookman's 
house can be fully furnished. It is not 
only in itself a book to be consulted and 
admired and cherished, but it is rich in 
information concerning other books that 



deserve to be admired and cherished. 
It is par excellence the bookman's book 
about books. 

Would you like to learn something 
about the greatest books the world has 
ever produced — something about the 
character of their contents — something 
about their origin ? 

The following list of references will 
help you to find the information you 
desire : 

ONE HUNDEED GREAT BOOKS. 

The Bible, III, 548; XXV, 449. 

The Vedas, II, 610; Rig- Veda, XII, 820. 



204 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Mahabharata, XXI, 294. 
Kamayana, XXI, 294. 
Sakuntala, XIII. 838 a.'" 
Shah-Namah, XVIII, 669; IX, 196. 
Zend Avesta, XXIV, 814. 
The Koran, XVI, 619. 

Homer's Iliad, XII, 120. 

Homer's Odyssey, XII, 122. 

Aristotle's Ethics, and Politics, I, 194; 
XIX, 362. 

Demosthenes on the Crown, VII, 63. 

iEschylus's Tragedies, I, 188. 

Sophocles's (Edipus, XXII, 285. 

Euripides's Medea, VIII, 592. 

Aristophanes's The Knights, II, 447. 

Herodotus, XI, 676. 

Xenophon's Anabasis, I, 690. 

Plato's Dialogues, XIX, 205-23. 

Cicero's Orations, XX, 528; V, 673. 

Lucretius's De Rerum Natura, XV, 
52-57 

Virgil's ^neid, XXIV, 267. 

Plutarch's Lives, XIX, 243; XVII, 344. 

Epictetus's Enchiridion or Manual, 
VIII, 418-19. 

Lucian's "True History," XV, 45. 

Marcus Aurelius's Meditations (or Re- 
flections, or Thoughts), HI, 76-78. 

The Eddas, VII, 563; XXII, 212. 
Nibelungenlied, XVll, 487. 
The Kalewala, IX, 191-92. 
Gesta Romanorum, X, 496. 
Malory's Morte d' Arthur, XV, 340; X, 
155. 
Arabian Nights, XXIII, 336. 
Froissart's Chronicle, IX, 704. 

Dante's Divina Commedia, VI, 717. 
Petrarch's Canzoniere, XVIII, 724. 
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, V, 392. 
Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, II, 443. 
Spenser's Faerie Queene, XXII, 409. 
Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, XXIII, 
82 b." 



Camoens's The Lusiad, IV, 661-62. 
Shakespeare's Tragedies, VII, 371. 
Moliere's Comedies, XVI, 646-53. 
Milton's Paradise Lost, XVI, 348-51. 
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, IV, 473. 
Byron's Childe Harold, and Don Juan, 
IV, 540-43. 

Tennyson's In Memoriam, XXIX, 252. 

Machiavelli's The Prince (Principe), 
XV, 150-51, 153. 

More's Utopia, XVI, 843, 845. 

Hobbes's Leviathan, VIII, 376; XII, 
37-42. 

Descartes' Principia Philosophice 
(Principles of Philosophy), VII, 104-11. 

Spinoza's Ethics, XXII, 416-19. 

Locke On the Human Understanding, 
VIII, 379. 

Newton's Principia, XVII, 454-59. 

Laplace's Mecanique Celeste, and Sys- 
teme du Monde, XIV, 301-02. 

Smith's Wealth of Nations, XIX, 
378. 

Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, XIII, 
854-64. 

Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
man Empire, X, 516. 

Boswell's Life of Dr. Johnson, IV, 69. 

Mill's Logic, XVI, 324. 

Darwin's Origin of Species, XXIV, 84. 

Spencer's First Principles, XXIX, 137. 

Boccaccio's Decameron, III, 734. 
Rabelais's Gargantua, XX, 203-05. 
Don Quixote, V, 306. 
Gil Bias, XIV, 472. 
Robinson Crusoe, VII, 26. 
Gulliver's Travels, XXII, 804. 
Prevost's Manon Lescaut, XIX, 739-40. 
The Vicar of Wakefield, X, 678. 
Voltaire's Zadig, XXIV, 313 a. 
St. Pierre's Paul and Virginia, XXI, 
205-06. 
Fielding's Tom Jones, IX, 128 a.'" 



THE BOOKMAN 



205 



Sterne's Tristram Shandy, XXII, 569- 
71; VIII, 383 b/" 

Lessing's Nathan the Wise, and Lao- 
coon, XIV, 480-82. 
. Goethe's Faust, X, 482. 

Fouque's Undine, IX, 429-30. 

Chateaubriand's Eene, V, 378. 

The Waverley Novels, VIII, 386. 

Balzac's Comedie Humaine, III, 262-63. 

Dumas's Monte Christo, VII, 450 b." 

Yictoi'Iiu^o'sLesMiserables,XXVU,Sm. 

Thackeray's Vanity Fair, XXIII, 234. 

Dickens's David Copperfield, VII, 153. 

Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre, IV, 329. 

Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, XI, 480 b.' 

Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, XXV, 
165. 

George Eliot's Romola, XXVI, 318. 

St. Augustine's Confessions, III, 66; 
VIII, 521; I, 195. 

Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of 
Christ, XIV, 33. 

Pascal's Pensees, XVIII, 341 a.' 

Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living and 
Holy Dying, XXIII, 100; VIII, 376. 

Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, XII,154. 

Bacon's Essays and Novum Organum, 
III, 182; VIII, 376. 

Sir Thomas Browne's Beligio Medici, 
and Urnburial, IV, 350-51. 

Rousseau's Confessions, XXI, 31-33. 

De Quincey's Confessions of an Eng- 
lish Opium-Eater, VII, 89. 

Richter's Titan, XX, 562. 

Lewes's History of Philosophy, XIV, 
491; VIII, 670. 

Addison's The Spectator, I, 136; VIII, 
380. 

Strauss's Life of Jesus, XXII, 620-21. 

Renan's Life of Jesus, XXVIII, 573. 

Macaulay's Essays, XV, 127. 

Emerson's Essays, XXVI, 568. 

Carlyle's French Revolution, XXVI, 65. 

Keble's Christian Year, XIV, 27. 



We have named more than one hun- 
dred. The list might be extended, but 
it is unnecessary. 

SOME BOOKISH SUBJECTS. 

Album, I, 403. 

Aldine — Aldus Manutius, XV, 519. 

Almanacs, I, 519. 

Ancient forms of books, XVIII, 148. 

Anonymous, III, 569. 

Alexandrian MS., I, 438. 

Bibliography, III, 563-74. 

Bibliomania, III, 566; XXV, 464. 

Bindings, IV, 36; XIV, 538; the " Ar- 
minian Nunnery," XXVI, 632. 

Block-books, III, 564; XXIII, 725. 

Black-letter, XXIII, 739. 

Books, IV, 33; III, 563. 

Book-cases, XIV, 537. 

Book-louse, XIII, 159. 

Book-plates, XXV, 543. 

Book-scorpion, XXV, 544. 

Books for the Blind, XXV, 503. 

Books in the British Museum, XXV, 
601. 

Bowdlerizism, XXV, 560. 

Broadsides, XVIII, 208. 

Catalogues, XIV, 537, 540. 

Copyright, XIV, 542. See also Chap- 
ter LXI, entitled The Printer and Pub- 
lisher. 

Censorship of books, HI, 569; IV, 35. 

Chap-books, XVIII, 208. 

Classification of books. III, 572. 

Cleaning of books, HI, 713. 

Condemned and prohibited books, III, 
569-70. See also Index Expurgatorius, 
below. 

De Morgan's Bibliography, VII, 59. 

Dibdin, VII, 149. 

Dictionaries, VII, 155-68; XXVI, 415. 

Duyckinck's Cyclopedia of Literature, 
XXVI, 472. 

Egyptian books, XIV, 509. 

Folk-books, XVIII, 208. 



206 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIOA 



Grolier, IV, 37; XXVII, 176. 

Grub Street, XXVII, 178. 

Harleian Collection, XXVII, 232. 

Illuminated manuscripts, XII, 745; 
XVI, 456. 

Incunabula, III, 565. 

Indexes, XII, 767: 

Index Expurgatorius, XII, 768; XIX, 
733; III, 569-70. 

Macaronics, IX, 311. 

Magliabechi, XV, 217; XIV, 529, 550. 

Manuscripts, VII, 220; XVIII, 148; 
XXIII, 725. 

Mezzofanti, XVI, 232. 

Pamphlets, XVIII, 208; XVII, 424. 

Prohibited books, III, 569; XII, 768; 
XIX, 733. 

Pseudonyms, III, 569. 

Rare and curious books, III, 656. 

Xylographic books, XXIII, 725. 

LIBRARIES. 

Libraries (general article), XIV, 
509-54. 

Libraries of the United States, XIV, 
534; XXVII, 586. 

Library Management, XIV, 536. 

Library Catalogues, XIV, 539. 

Library of Congress, XXVII. 586-87; 
XIV, 535. 



State Libraries, XIV, 534. 

The Advocates' Library, XXV, 53. 

Astor Library, XXV, 278. 

Tilden Library, XXIX, 288. 

Boston Public Library, XXV, 551. 

Libraries in Chicago, XXVI, 146. 

Libraries in Philadelphia, XXVIII, 402. 

Lenox Library, XXVII, 577. 

Pratt Library, Baltimore, XXVIII, 478. 

National Library, XXVIII, 174. 

Assyrian libraries. III, 165. 

Egyptian libraries, XIV, 509. 

Chinese libraries, XIV, 533, 552. 

Arabian libraries, XIV, 513. 

Library of the British Museum, XIV, 
514; XXV, 600-02. 

Monastic libraries, XIV, 512, 527. 

Bodleian Library, XIV, 518. 

Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris, XIV, 
523. 

Biblioteca Vaticana, XIV, 528. 

LIBRARIANS. 

Magliabechi, XV, 217; XIV, 529, 550. 

Mezzofanti, XVI, 232. 

Richard de Bury, XIV, 513. 

Panizzi, XVIII, 215-17. 

Melvil Dewey, XXVI, 408. 

W. F. Poole, XIV, 541; XXVIII, 457. 

A. R. Spofford, XXIX, 141. 



CHAPTER LVni 



The Teacher 

■ The true university of our day is a collection of books." 

— Thomas Carlyle, 



Valuable as the Encyclopedia Britan- 
nica is to persons of all callings and 
professions, there is no one 
The -^iiQ (.^n derive greater bene- 

Book fit from it than the teacher. 

To the man or vv^oman ac- 
tively engaged in education, its vv^orth 



is beyond all estimation. It is an ex- 
haustless mine of knowledge, offering 
information on every imaginable sub- 
ject. It is an obliging friend, answering 
accurately the thousands of perplexing 
questions that are daily and unexpect- 
edly presented. It is the teacher's vade 



THE TEACHER 



207 



inecum, the indispensable companion to 
which he turns for help and guidance in 
every time of need. If one were asked 
to point out the articles of greatest 
value to the educator, he could not an- 
swer ; he could only say, "All are valua- 
ble." To the teacher of science, the 
articles on scientific subjects will be re- 
ferred to most frequently (see the refer- 
ences on pp. 54-79 of this Guide). The 
teacher of mathematics will derive aid 
from the numerous chapters and trea- 
tises on mathematical subjects (see pp. 
74-76). And so, whether you are a 
teacher of geography, or of philosophy, 
or of literature, or of history, or of mu- 
sic, or of art, or of any other department 
of human knowledge, you will find the 
Britannica always ready to supplement 
your instruction, and to aid you in the 
work which you have in hand. 

This is the day of educated teachers 
— of teachers who are learned not only 
in the branches which they 
teach at school, but in the 
principles which underlie the practice 
of their calling. Pedagogy has become 
a distinct science. School-teaching is 
no longer a haphazard business ; it is a 
profession conducted on lines as exact 
as those which determine the practice 
of law or of medicine or of theology. 
The teacher who neglects or refuses to 
recognize this fact is already on the 
road to failure, and his successor is 
knocking at the door. 

In the present chapter it is proposed 
to mark out two or three brief courses 
of professional reading for teachers — 
courses which may be pursued at odd 
moments at home, and which will in no 
small measure take the place of similar 
courses of study in teachers' institutes 
and normal colleges. The teacher who 
follows them out faithfully will be not 



Pedagogy 



only better equipped for examinations, 
but possessed of a broader and deeper 
knowledge of his profession, and conse- 
quently much better prepared to grap- 
ple with its diflBculties and avoid its 
perplexities. 

I. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

Let us take as the starting-point and 
basis of this course of reading the ar- 
ticle Education, in the seventh volume 
of the Britannica. This article, which 
covers eight double-column pages (582- 
91), is the work of Oscar Browning, of 
Cambridge University, well known in 
this country for his work on Educational 
Theories. The object of the article is 
mainly to outline the history of educa- 
tional theories in the chief crises of their 
development, and no attempt is made 
to discuss the science of teaching or to 
describe the practical working of any 
particular method or theory. Let us, 
then, study the history of education 
from the following references: 

Old Greek education, VII, 582. 
Education Plato, XIX, 205. 
and Rome OW Roman education,VII, 582. 
Quintilian, XX, 193, 528. 

Early Christian education, VII, 582. 

Clement, V, 715. 

Origen, XVII, 863. 

Tertullian, XXIII, 213. 

Augustine, III, 66. 

Education in the Middle Ages, VII, 
582. 

See also Knighthood, XIV, 112. 
Tj^g Charlemagne, V, 349. 

Middle Alcuin, I, 417. 
^^"' Bede, III, 415. 
John Scotus Erigena, VIII, 462. 
Gerhard Groot, XI, 185. 
Thomas a Kempis, XIV, 33. 



208 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Brethren of the Common Life, XVI, 
737. 

Education at the time of the Renais- 
sance, VII, 583. 

See also Erasmus, VIII, 453. 

Luther, XV, 73. 

Melanchthon, XV, 842. 

Twelve famous teachers: 
Sturm (1507-89), VII, 584. 
Famous Rogor Ascham (1515-78), II, 

Teachers ^Qg 

Comenius (1592-1671), VI, 162. 

Ignatius Loyola, XV, 32. 

Arnauld, II, 542. 

Pascal, XVIII, 339. 

August Hermann Francke, IX, 617. 

Pestalozzi, VII, 587. 

Froebel, IX, 695. 

Jacotot, XIII, 549. 

Thomas Arnold, II, 547. 

Horace Mann, XV, 499. 

Lindley Murray, XXVIII, 162. 

Mary Lyon, XXVII. 651. 

James B. Angell, XXV, 192. 

Writers on Education: 

Roger Ascham (" The Scholemaster"), 
II, 592. 
^writers' Moutaigue, XVI, 793; VII, 
585. 

John Locke, XIV, 758. 

John Milton ("Tractate on Educa- 
tion"), XVI, 336. 

The Port Royalists, XIX, 548. 

Rousseau ("iSmile"), XXI, 31. 

Pestalozzi (" Leonard and Gertrude ")> 
VII, 587. 

Jean Paul Richter ("Levana"), XX, 
561. 

Goethe ("Wilhelm Meister"), X, 652. 

Herbert Spencer, XXIX, 136. 

Alexander Bain, XXV, 326. 

F. A. P. Barnard, XXV, 364. 

V^illiam T. Harris, XXVII, 237. 



II. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN 
THE OLD WORLD. 

Plato's Academy, I, 67; other famous 
academies, I, 68. 

universities The AtheusBum, II, 727. 
and Universities, XXIII, 887. 

coneges rpjj-g extensive article exhib- 
its the universities in their historical 
development, each being brought under 
notice, as far as practicable, in the 
order of its original foundation. 

Oxford University, V1II,284;XXIII,893. 

Cambridge University, III, 499; IV, 
644-47; XXIII, 893. 

Aberdeen University, XXV, 26. 

Edinburgh University, XXIII, 902. 

University of Leipsic, XIV, 429; XXIII, 
897. 

Gresham College, XXVII, 171. 

Newnham College, XXVIII, 217. 

Public schools in England: Charter 
House, XXVI, 120; Eton, VIII, 555; 
Christ's Hospital (" Blue-coat School "), 
XXVI, 167; Harrow, XI, 443; XXVII, 
239; Winchester, XXIV, 628; Westmin- 
ster, XXIX, 526. 

Musical conservatories, VI, 260; XVII, 
90. 

Technical schools, XXIII, 113. 
Special Schools for the blind. III, 

schools 717^ 722. 

Schools for the deaf and dumb, II, 631; 
VII, 7. 
Industrial schools, XX, 350. 
Kindergartens, XIV, 81. 

Schools in England, XIV, 844. 
Schools in France, IX, 453. 
Schools in Germany, X, 423. 
Schools in Russia, XXI, 78. 

III. EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 

A comprehensive and exceedingly 
interesting article on the history of 



THE TEACHER 



209 



Colleges 



Higher Education in the United 
States is contained in XXVI, 489-95. 
This article is the work of Dr. 
^EduLtion B. A. Hinsdale, of Michigan 
University, and should be read 
not only by every American teacher, 
but by every person who would be in- 
formed concerning the progress of edu- 
cation and of educational ideas in this 
country. It is a worthy companion 
article to the very complete history of 
Universities, XXIII, 887. 

Statistics showing the number of col- 
leges and universities in each State in 
1840, XXVI, 492. 
Adelbert College, XXV, 47. 
American University at Washington, 

XXV, 173. 

Amherst College, XXV, 175. 
American School at Athens, XXV, 288. 
Antioch College, XXV, 204. 
Baylor University, XXV, 392. 
Beloit College, XXV, 421. 
Boston University, XXV, 552. 
Brown University, XXV, 619. 
Bryn-Mawr College, XXV, 626. 
Catholic University of America, 

XXVI, 87. 

Chicago, University of, XXIX, 401. 

Clark University, XXVI, 188. 

Colgate University, XXVI, 229. 

Colorado College, XXVI, 238. 

Colorado University, XXVI, 238. 

Columbia College, XVII, 468; XXVI, 
241. 

Columbian University, XXVI, 241. 

Cornell College, XXVI, 287. 

Cornell University, XXVI, 287. 

Dartmouth College, XXVI, 357. 

De Pauw University, XXVI, 398. 

Dickinson College, XXVI, 415. 

Earlham College, XXVI, 478. 

Fisk University, XXVI, 656. 

Franklin and Marshall College, XXVII, 
27. 

14 



General Theological Seminary, XXVII, 
75. 

Georgetown University, XXVII, 79. 

Georgia, University of, XXVII, 82. 

Girard College, XXVII, 100. 

Hamilton College, XXVII, 220. 

Hamline University, XXVII, 221. 

Hampden Sidney College, XXVII, 22^1 

Harvard University, XI, 447; XXVII, 
243. 

Kadcliffe College, XXVIII, 530; XXVII, 
243 (under Harvard University). 

Haverford College, XXVII, 253. 

Howard University, XXVII, 330. 

Illinois University, XXVII, 363. 

Indiana University, XXVII, 382. 

Iowa College, XXVII, 400. 

Iowa, University of, XXIX, 403. 

Johns Hopkins University, XXVII, 453. 

Kansas, University of, XXVII, 478. 

Kenyon College, XXVII, 490. 

Knox College, XXVII, 513. 

Lafayette College, XXVII, 535. 

Lake Forest University, XXVII, 537. 

Lawrence University, XXVII, 560. 

Leland Stanford Junior University, 

XXVII, 574. 

Miami University, XXVIII, 87. 
Michiga,n, University of, XXVIII, 91. 
Military Academy at West Point, 

XXVIII, 95. 

Military Colleges and Schools, XXVIII, 
97. 
Minnesota, University of, XXVIII, 109. 
Mississippi, University of, XXVIII, 114. 
Missouri, University of, XXVIII, 117. 
Montana, University of, XXVIII, 129. 
McKendree College, XXVII, 671. 
Maine State University, XXVII, 688. 
Manhattan College, XXVIII, 13. 
Mount Holyoke College, XXVIII, 155. 
Muhlenberg College, XXVIII, 157. 
Nashville, University of, XXVIII, 172. 
Nebraska, University of, XXVIII, 191. 
New York, University of, XXVIII, 240. 



210 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



New Mexico, University of, XXV, 122. 
Niagara University, XXVIII, 242. 
North Carolina Univ., XXVIII, 254. 
Northv\restern Uni versity,XX VIII, 259. 
Notre Dame, Univ. of, XXVIII, 263. 
Oberlin College, XXVIII, 270. 
Ohio State University, XXVIII, 280. 
Ohio Wesleyan Univ., XXVIII, 281. 
Oklahoma University, XXVIII, 283. 
Univ. of Pennsylvania, XXVIII, 380. 
Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, XXVIII, 477. 
Princeton University, XIX, 761; 

XXVIII, 489. 

Purdue University, XXVIII, 520. 
Randolph-Macon College, XXVIII, 551. 
Rochester, University of, XXVIII, 604. 
Rutgers College, XXVIII, 636. 
St. Louis University, XXVIII, 648. 
South Dakota, Univ. of, XXIX, 131. 
Syracuse University, XXIX, 215. 
Tennessee, University of, XXIX, 251. 
Texas University, XXIX, 260. 
Trinity University, XXIX, 318. 
Tufts College, XXIX, 331. 
Tulane University, XXIX, 331. 
Union College, XXIX, 353. 
University of the South, XXIX, 403. 
Vanderbilt University, XXIX, 419. 
Vassar College, XXIX, 423. 
Vermont, University of, XXIX, 433. 
Virginia, University of, XXIX, 451. 
Washington, University of, XXIX, 494. 
Washington and Lee University, 

XXIX, 495. 

Wellesley College, XXIX, 518. 
Wesleyan University, XXIX, 522. 
Western Reserve University, XXIX, 
524. 
Williams College, XXIX, 557. 
Yale Univ., XVII, 403; XXIX, 615. 

College Fraternities in the United 
States, XXVI, 230. 
University Press, XXIX, 403. 
University Settlements, XXIX, 403. 



Technical schools in America, XXIX, 
234. 

Business colleges, XXV, 659. 

Scientific schools, I, 68. 
%^ohoois Smithsonian Institution, 
XXIX, 110. 

Scientific societies, XXV, 52. 

Chautauqua Literary and Scientific 
Circle, XXVI, 125. 

University Extension, XXIX, 400. 

Examinations, VIII, 680. 

Fellowships, XXVI, 629. 

Private schools in the United States, 
XXIX, 20. 

Public schools in the United States, 
XXIX, 22. 

High schools in the United States, 
XXIX, 28. 

Manual training in the public schools, 
XXVIII, 19; XXIX, 31. 

Normal schools in the United States, 
XXVIII, 250 ; XXIX, 29. 

Evening schools, XXIX, 29. 

Rural schools, XXIX, 32. 

Kindergartens, XIV, 81; XXVII, 497. 

School system among the Indians, 
XXVII, 379. 

Schoolsin Indian Territory,XXVII,383. 

Compulsory education, XXIX, 33. 

Legal education in the United States, 
XXVII, 569. 

Medical education in the United 
States, XXVIII, 59. 

Theological education in the United 
States, XXIX, 263. 

Union Theological Seminary, XXIX, 
354. 

Education of Women in the United 
States, XXIX, 579. 

National Bureau of Education, XXIX, 
30. 

IV. EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

Generally a full account of the educa- 
tional institutions of any country may 



THE TEACHER 



ail 



be found in the article referring to the 
country in question. 

United States, XXIII, 882. 
"ISroaa France, IX, 452. 

Institute of France, XIII, 166. 

Germany, X, 423. 

Great Britain, VII, 589; XIV, 844. 

Scientific academies, XXII, 232; XXV, 
32. 

Italy, XIII, 470. 

Russia, XXI, 78. 

Austria, III, 103. 

Iceland, XII, 654. 

India, XII, 813. 

Arabia, II, 220. 

V. PSYCHOLOGY. 

The article on Psychology, by Profes- 
sor James Ward, of Trinity College, 
Cambridge (Volume XX), fills 
^"f BiTnd iiearly fifty pages of the Bri- 
tannica, and contains more 
matter than the ordinary school text- 
books on that subject. The teacher 
who cares to go so deeply into the study 
as to master this entire treatise will 
probably not desire a more extended 
course of reading. It may be preferable, 
however, to read only selected portions 
of the article, and to supplement the 
knowledge thus .pained with collateral 
readings from other sources. In such 
case the following subjects may be in- 
cluded: Definition, p. 42; standpoint of 
psychology, p. 43; constituent elements 
of mind, p. 44; feeling, p. 45; attention, 
p. 46; dependence of action on feeling, 
p. 48; relativity, p. 54; sensation and 
movement, p. 55; perception, p. 56; 
intuition of things, p. 60; imagination 
or ideation, p. 62; obliviscence, p. 66; 
expectation, p. 68; feeling, p. 71; intel- 
lection, p. 79, etc. 

Evolution of mind, VIII, 673. 

Association of Ideas, II, 638-42. 



Great 
Psyctiolo- 
gists 



Mental powers of man, II, 96. 
Apperception, XXV, 213. 
Attention, III, 46. 
Relativity of knowledge, I, 59. 
Sense distinguished from understand- 
ing,VIII,3. 

Locke on this subject, XIV, 764. 
Faculties of perception, XVIII, 859. 
Kant on imagination, XIII, 861. 
Mnemonics — memory, XVI, 556. 
Optimism and pessimism, XVIII, 698. 

The following biographical notes 
should also be read: 

Aristotle, II, 448. 

Xenocrates, XXIV, 754. 

Democritus, VII, 53. 

Plato, XIX, 205. 
Thomas Brown, IV, 348. 
Bishop Berkeley, III, 508. 
Pierre Charron, V, 373. 
Etienne de Condillac, VI, 223. 
Victor Cousin, VI, 466. 
Descartes, VII, 109. 
Kant, XIII, 857. 
Leibnitz, XIV, 422. 
David Hume, XII, 365. 
Herman Lotze, XV, 13. 
Schleiermacher, XXT, 429. 
Schopenhauer, XXI, 478. 
Hegel, XI, 546. 
Herbart, XI, 642. 
Samuel Bailey, III, 208. 
G. H. Lewes, XIV, 490. 
Herbert Spencer, XXIX, 136-39. 
William James, XXVII, 437. 

VI. THEOEIES OF EDUCATION. 

Plato's, VII, 582. 
Socrates's, XXII, 248. 

Quintilian's, VII, 582. 
Brethren of the Common 
Life, XI, 185. 
Theories of Erasmus, VII, 583; VIII, 
453. 
Theories of Sturm, VII, 584. 



Theories of 
Education 



212 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Theories of Comenius, VI, 162; VII, 584. 

Locke's, XIV, 763. 

Milton's, XVI, 342. 

The Jesuits' theory, XIII, 656. 

The Port Royalists', XIX, 548. 

Rousseau's, VII, 586. 

Richter's, VII, 587 b." 



Goethe's, VII, 588 a. 
Pestalozzi's, XIV, 81; XXll, 836. 
Froebel's, IX, 695. 
Herbart's, XIV, 803. 
Herbert Spencer's, VII, 588 a"; XXIX, 
138. 
Alexander Bain's, VII, 588 b.' 



CHAPTER LIX 
The Writer 

" Certainly, the art of writing is the most miraculous of all things 
man has devised." — Thomas Carlyie. 

" There are two duties incumbent upon any man who enters on 
the business of writing — truth to fact, and a good spirit in the treat- 
ment." — Robert Louis Stevenson. 



Writing 
Materials 



I. PENMANSHIP AND ITS ALLIED ARTS. 

First, as to the manual exercise of 
penmanship, what is there in the Bri- 
tannica which commends itself to the 
writer, or to him who is interested in 
the art of writing? Let us see. 

Without implements and materials 
there can be no writing. The history 
of these and the description of 
their manufacture cannot fail 
to be of interest. 

Read the article Pen, XVIII, 493, 
which is full of interesting details con- 
cerning the manufacture of modern 
steel pens; Ink, XIII, 86; then an ac- 
count of the invention of paper, IV, 34; 
of its invention by the Chinese, V, 575, 
of the uses made of it in ancient times, 
XVIII, 148; and finally, the special ar- 
ticle, Paper, XVIII, 221. Read also of 
Papyrus, XVIII, 235; and of Parch- 
ment, XVIII, 276; XIV, 390; and IV, 34. 
The earliest writing materials are de- 
scribed in XVIII, 235. 



Hand- 
writing 



A concise history of the art of writing 
may be found in XXIX, 606. The history 
of ancient handwriting is re- 
lated in a very interesting ar- 
ticle on Palaeography, XVIII, 
147-70; the ancient system of Hiero- 
glyphics, XI, 709; Cuneiform Writing, 
VI, 624, and XI, 193; Mexican picture 
writing, XVI, 220; Chinese writing, V, 
567-72; Sanskrit, XXI, 282-86. 

A comprehensive history and descrip- 
tion of the Alphabet is given in I, 
527-40. 

The alphabets of different nations 
also receive separate notice. For ex- 
ample: 

The Phoenician, XI, 722, and XVIII, 
815, 819; Egyptian, XI, 722; Greek, XII, 
115; Roman, XIII, 131; Sanskrit, XXI, 
282; the Old Norse Runes, XXI, 382, 386. 

The deaf and dumb alphabet is de- 
scribed in VII, 5; the phonetic method 
in XVlll, 824, and XXII, 396; and the 
phonographic in XXI, 875. 



THE WRITER 



213 



Composition 



Rhetoric 



See also Archeology, II, 299, and 
Chapter LX in this Guide, entitled The 
Stenographer and Typewriter. 

II. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

The mental processes of writing are 
closely related to the various branches 
of language study, such as 
grammar, rhetoric, prosody, 
etc. Hence the inquiry may be made, 
" What are the principal articles in the 
Britannica which will be interesting and 
useful to the busy man who wishes to 
acquire correctness and facility in En- 
glish composition?" Let us briefly no- 
tice a few. 

The special article Rhetoric, XX, 523, 
is interesting and comprehensive, and 
in large part historical. Notice 
the section on rhetoric in an- 
cient Greece, XX, 523; that on rhetoric 
in the Middle Ages, XX, 529; and that 
on modern writers on rhetoric, XX, 530. 

Still pursuing the history of this sub- 
ject, read the notice of Aristotle's rhet- 
oric, II, 454; of Lysias's, XV, 118; and of 
Quintilian's, XX, 193. Read also the 
brief account of Whately's famous 
work, XXIV, 559. 

Being fairly introduced into this 
study, you are now prepared to consult 
the Britannica for the large number of 
separate articles relating to the terms, 
expressions, and rules of rhetoric and 
its kindred branches of study. Here are 
some that are found in the first two vol- 
umes; they are mentioned simply as ex- 
amples, trusting that the reader will be 
able to find all other articles of the kind 
without further directions: 

In Volume I. Acrostic, Alcaics, Alle- 
gory, Alliteration, Alexandrine Verse, 
Anacoluthon, Anachronism, Anagram, 
Abbreviations, etc. 

In Volume II. Anecdote, Anticlimax, 



Grammar 



Antithesis, Antonomasia, Aphorism, 
Apologue, Apothegm, etc. 

In the later E. B. volumes many 
additional articles may be found, such 
as: 

Blank Verse, XXV, 501. 

Climax, XXVI, 200. 

Apostrophe, XXV, 211. 

Hexameters, XXVII, 284. 

Prosody, XXVIII, 501. 

By observing the list of terms and 
expressions used in any text-book on 
rhetoric, you may complete this list; 
and then, by finding the various articles 
in the Britannica, you will observe how 
much more fully they are treated there 
than in any of the smaller manuals. 

The article Grammar, XI, 34, belongs 
rather to the philologist than to the 
writer, and more to the stu- 
dent than to the busy man. 
The section on school grammars, XI, 
39, is interesting, and well worth your 
reading. 

Every writer will find certain articles 
in the Britannica very valuable for ref- 
erence in case of any dispute or lapse of 
memory regarding best usage, etc. For 
example, the articles on Abbreviations, 
I, 31, and XXV, 17, contain a correct list 
of all the more common abbreviations 
used by reputable writers. The latter 
article is very complete. It is followed 
by a list of Abbreviatory Signs, XXV, 
22, showing the marks and symbols em- 
ployed in commerce and in the various 
arts and sciences. A list of Forms of 
Address employed in letter-writing is 
given in XXV, 46. 

The methods pursued in correcting 
printers' proofs are fully explained in 
XXVIII, 497. If the date of any impor- 
tant event has been forgotten, it may 
very likely be found by referring to the 
Chronological Table, V, 625. In short, 



-214 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



the Britannica is always ready to aid 
one's memory, and to no other person 
does it give more assistance in this way 
than to the writer. 

But, after all, it is chiefly through the 
study of the works of the best writers 
that one can hope properly to improve 
his own style, and to acquire facility 
and elegance in the use of language. 
Hence the busy writer is urged to make 
a special study of the references in 
Chapter VII, entitled Five Courses of 
Beading in the History of Literature, in 
this Guide, also Chapter LVI, entitled 
The Bublic Speaker. 

III. ONE HUNDRED SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS. 

The following list is designed chiefly 
to aid teachers and pupils at school in 
the selection of subjects for essays, some 
of the materials for which may be ac- 
quired through the systematic study of 
certain articles in the Encyclopcedia 
Britannica. A good rule, which every 
writer should attempt to observe, is 
this: "Never undertake to write upon 
any topic until you have made a careful 
study of that topic. Store your mind 
with knowledge, so that your writing 
will be the visible expression of your 
thoughts. Always have something to 
say before you attempt to write or 
to speak." The various references 
mentioned or pointed out will indicate 
some of the places in the Britannica 
where information regarding those sub- 
jects may be found. These 
'for^Essays ^^^ intended only as hints, 
and are not designed to re- 
lieve the student from the very neces- 
sary labor of independent research. 

1. Temperance. See the references 
given in Chapter LVI, entitled The 
Public Speaker. 



2. The Wonders of Electricity. See 
VIII, 4; XV, 784; XX, 260. The ref- 
erences in Chapter XXVI, for The Elec- 
trician, in this Guide, will be helpful. 

3. Ancient Oratory. See the refer- 
ences to famous speakers, in Chapter 
LVI, entitled The Public Speaker. 

4. American Poetry. Study the por- 
tion of the article on American Litera- 
ture which deals with Poetry, 1, 641-44. 
Read also the biographical sketches of 
the great American poets: Henry W. 
Longfellow, XIV, 870; John G. Whittier, 
XXIX, 545; William Cullen Bryant, 
XXV, 625; James Russell Lowell, XXVII, 
638; Edgar Allan Poe, XIX, 267; Walt 
Whitman, XXIX, 544. 

5. True Greatness in Man. See bio- 
graphical sketches of such men as Jo- 
seph, XIII, 759; Moses, XVI, 888; Con- 
fucius, VI, 229; Buddha, III, 323, also 
Vol. IV, 381; Elijah, VIII, 126; Socrates, 
XXII, 244; Cato,V,208; Marcus Aurelius, 
III, 75-78; Charlemagne, V, 349; King 
Alfred. I, 447; St. Louis, XV, 20; Savon- 
arola, XXI, 349; Galileo, X, 28; William 
the Silent, XXIV, 614-15; John Milton, 
XVI, 336; George Washington, XXIV, 
408; and many others. 

6. The Earth. See the references in 
Chapter XIII, entitled Beadings in Geog- 
7'aphy, in this Guide. 

7. Mountains. Refer to special arti- 
cle, XVII, 10. 

8. The Ocean. Water of, XXI, 641; 
waves, XXIV, 440; depths. III, 17; tem- 
perature, VI, 6; tides, XXIII, 375; fishes, 
XII, 722. 

9. Great Cities of the World. See 
London, XIV, 827; Paris, XVIII, 278; 
New York, XVH, 462; Berlin, III, 512; 
and others that will readily be suggested. 
Consult the Index volume. 



THE WRITER 



215 



10. Ships and Sailors. See Chapter 
XXXIX in this Guide, entitled The Sea- 
man. 

11. Progress of Inventions. See, in 
this Guide, the readings in " Archaeology 
and Antiquities," pp. 81-83; also Chapter 
XXVII, entitled The Inventor. 

12. The Steam-Engine. Consult the 
Index volume; also Chapter XXV in this 
Guide, entitled The Machinist. 

13. War and Peace. Refer to Chapter 
XLI, entitled The Soldier. See Interna- 
tional Peace, XIII, 203 a. Consult the 
Index volume. 

14. Slavery. See the special article, 
XXII, 137; also ancient slavery, XIX, 
361; Negro, XVII, 325. Consult Index 
volume. Read about Wilberforce, XXIV, 
595; Clarkson, V, 710; Garrison, X, 78; 
Wendell Phillips, XXVIII, 407; John 
Brown, IV, 346; and the anti-slavery 
leaders named in Chapter LV, entitled 
The Philanthropist and Reformer, p. 200. 

15. Socialism. See the special article 
on Socialism, XXII, 216. Consult Index 
volume; also the references under 7. 
Cooperation, on pp. 164-65 of this Guide. 
Read about Robert Owen, XVIII, 90; 
Fourier, IX, 432; Saint-Simon, XXI, 207; 
Rodbertus, XX, 632; Proudhon, XIX, 
892; the Shakers, XXI, 773; the Oneida 
Community, XVII, 794; Labor Organiza- 
tions, XXVII, 526. 

16. Taxation. See references in this 
Guide, in the section on Public Finance, 
on pp. 169-70 of Chapter XLV, entitled 
The Banker and Financier. 

17. The Origin of Language. See VIII, 
673. Consult Index volume under the 
headings Language and Philology. See 
references in this Guide, in Chapter 
VIII, entitled Readings in Philology and 
the History of Language. 



18. Land Tenure. See special articles 
on Land, XIV, 260-71, and on Landlord 
AND Tenant, XIV, 273-78. Consult 
Index volume. See Adam Smith, XIX, 
380; Ricardo, XIX, 386; Henry George, 
XXVII, 78. 

19. Law in Ancient Times. Consult 
the references in Chapter XLVIII, en- 
titled Tlie Lawyer, p. 174. 

20. Feudalism. See the special arti- 
cle on Feudalism, Feudal System, IX, 
105-08. Consult Index volume. See 
Knight, XIV, 112; Castle, V, 171; Tour- 
naments, XXIII, 520; Chivalry (Index 
volume, p. 194); Homage, XII, 110, etc. 

21. The Revival of Learning. See 
Renaissance, XX, 392. Consult Index 
volume. 

22. The Art of Printing. See refer- 
ences in Chapter LXI, entitled The 
Printer and the Publisher, in this Guide. 

23. Newspapers. See references in 
Chapter LXII, entitled The Journalist. 

24. Perseverance Leads to Success. 
For illustrations of this truth, see the 
biographical references in this Guide, 
pp. 25-29. 

25. Education in Greece and Rome. 
See the references in Chapter LVIII, en- 
titled The Teacher. 

26. Great Educators. See the refer- 
ences in Chapter LVIII, entitled The 

Teacher. 

27. The Science of Education. See 
the references in Chapter LVIII, en- 
titled The Teacher. 

28. Famous Institutions of Learning. 
See the references in Chapter LVIII, 
entitled The Teacher. 

29. The Progress of Medical Science. 
See the historical and biographical 
references in Chapter L, entitled The 



216 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Physician, in this Guide. Consult In- 
dex volume. 

30. Music and Musicians. See the 
references in Chapter LXIV, entitled 
The Musician, in this Guide. 

31. The Discovery of America. See 
VI, 155; X, 161; XI, 153; Icelandic dis- 
coveries, XII, 660; early knowledge of, 
X, 159; original inhabitants, XVI, 214; 
origin of name America, X, 162, and 
XXIV, 208. See also references in Chap- 
ter VI of this Guide, entitled Three 
Courses of Reading in History. 

32. Great Americans. See the refer- 
ences in Chapter III, entitled Home 
Readings in Biography, in this Guide. 

33. Washington and Lafayette. Con- 
sult Index volume. See references to 
great Americans, above. 

34. Hamilton and Burr. See XI, 368; 
XXIII, 793; XIX, 397; XI, 369; XXV, 655. 

35. Great American Orators. See the 
biographical references in Chapter LVI, 
entitled TJie Public Speaker. 

36. The Invention of the Telescope. 
Consult Index volume. 

37. The Telegraph and the Telephone. 
See the references in Chapter XXVI, en- 
titled The Electrician, in this Guide. 

38. Astrology. See the references 
given, in this Guide, in Chapter IX, en- 
titled Readings in Astronomy, p. 55; and 
in Chapter XXI, entitled Readings in the 
Study of the Supernatural, p. 95. 

39. The Philosopher's Stone. See the 
references given, under Alchemy, in this 
Guide, p. 95. 

40. The Progress of Chemistry. See 
special article, V, 397; also XXVI, 130- 
39. Consult Index volume. 

41. The Air We Breathe. See I, 379; 
III, 26-33. Consult Index volume; also 



see Atmosphere, Oxygen, Respiration, 
Ventilation, Asphyxia. 

42. Water and Its Uses. See XXIV, 
420-22, 424-32. Consult Index volume. 

43. Curious Facts About Trees. See 
the references in Chapter XXXV, en- 
titled The Woodsman. 

44. The Solar System. See the ref- 
erences on pp. 55-56 of this Guide. 

45. The Moon. See XVI, 825-29. 
Consult the Index volume. 

46. The Worship of the Sun. By the 
Greeks, II, 162; by the Phoenicians, 

XVIII, 815; by the Saba^ans, XXIV, 778; 
at Heliopolis, XIX, 100; at Baalbec, III, 
153. 

47. The Fire-Worshipers. See XXIV, 
209; XVII, 164; XI, 605; XVIII, 330-33; 

XIX, 830. 

48. The American Indians. See I, 
602-19; XII, 862-73; XXVII, 374-82. 
Consult Index volume. 

49. African Explorations. Consult 
Index volume. 

50. The Arctic Regions. See II, 422; 
XIX, 327; X, 170; IX, 634-35. 

51. The Gulf Stream. Consult Index 
volume. 

52. Great Cities. See the references 
on pp. 71-72 of this Guide. 

53. Our Government. See the refer- 
ences in Chapter XLII, entitled The 
American Citizen. 

54. Monarchy. Consult Index vol- 
ume; also references on p. 151 of this 
Guide. 

55. The Mongol Races of Asia. See 
XVI, 767-78. Consult Index volume. 

56. China and Japan. Consult Index 
volume. 

57. Buddha and Buddhism. See IV. 
381-92. Consult Index volume. 



THE WRITER 



217 



58. Missions. See XVI, 535-40; also 
the references on pp. 198-99 of this 
Guide. 

59. Idolatry. See XII, 737, 749. 

60. Mohammedanism. See XVI, 568- 
628. Consult Index volume. 

61. The Jews. See XI, 531-38; XIII, 
406-41, 690-98. Consult Index vol- 
ume. See also Chapter XIX in this 
Guide, entitled Readings for Bible Stu- 
dents. 

62. The Gipsies. See X, 545-52. Con- 
sult Index volume. 

63. The Moors in Spain. See I, 
234-35. See, in Index volume, the fol- 
lowing subjects: Spain, Arabs, Moors, 
Alhambra, Granada, Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella. 

64. The Turks. Consult Index vol- 
ume. 

65. The Battle of Hastings. See the 
following subjects in Index volume: 
William the Conqueror, Normans, Har- 
old, Hastings, Battle. 

66. Trial by ordeal. See XVII, 842. 

67. Trial by jury. See XIII, 793-97. 
Consult Index volume. 

68. The Knights Templars. See 
XXIII, 175-81. See also Templars, in 
Index volume. 

69. Poetry. See XIX, 269-85; XXV, 
164-67. Consult Index volume. 

Consult Index volume, and also this 
Guide, for valuable references to the 
following subjects: 

70. Chaucer, the father of English 
poetry. 

71. Dante and Milton. 

72. Shakespeare's Dramas. 

73. The Greek Drama. See VII, 349- 
54; XI, 125-26; also references on pp. 
229-30 of this Guide. 



74. Pope and Dryden. 

75. Addison and the Spectator. 

76. Dr. Samuel Johnson. 

77. Dictionaries. See VII, 155-68; 
also the references in Chapter LVII, en- 
titled The Bookman, in this Guide. 

78. History of Agriculture. See Chap- 
ter XXXII, entitled The Farmer, in this 
Guide. 

79. Patents. See Chapter XXVII, en- 
titled The Inventor, in this Guide. 

80. Copyright. See Chapter LXI, en- 
titled The Printer and the Publisher, in 
this Guide. 

81. Books and How They Are Made. 
See Chapter LXI, entitled The Printer 
and the Publisher, in this Guide. 

82. On Costume. 

83. On Commerce. See also Chapter 
XLVI, entitled The Merchant and Trader. 

84. On Exercise. See Athletic Sports, 
Health, Gymnastics, Calisthenics, etc. 

85. On Games and Amusements. See 
also Chapter V, entitled Games, Sports, 
and Pastimes. 

86. Domestic Animals. See Horse, 
Dog, Cat, Sheep, etc.; also the references 
on p. 30 of this Guide. 

87. The Animal Kingdom. See the 
readings about animals, pp. 29-31 of 
this Guide. 

88. Labor and Capital. See the refer- 
ences in Chapter XXXI, entitled The 
Laborer, in this Guide; also XXIII, 531. 

89. Great Guns. See the references 
in Chapter XLI, entitled The Soldier, in 
this Guide. 

90. Invention of Gunpowder. 

91. War. See also Chapter XLI, en- 
titled The Soldier, in this Guide, pp. 
145-50. 



218 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



92. Stories of Old Greece, ^qq Legends, 
pp. 91-93 of this GruiDE. 

93. Myths of the Old World. See the 
references on pp. 90-94 of this Gtuide. 

94. The Greatest Books. See the 
references in Chapter LVII, entitled The 
Bookman, pp. 203-05. 

95. The World's Great Thinkers. See 
the biographical references on pp. 83-86 
of this Guide. 



96. Great Reformers. See references 
on pp. 198-201 of this Guide. 

97. The Work of the Farmer. See 
Chapter XXXII, entitled The Farmer. 

98. Famous Merchants. See refer- 
ences on p. 172 of this Guide. 

99. The Trade of the World. See 
references on pp. 170-72 of this Guide. 

100. Superstition. See pp. 94-96 of 
this Guide. 



CHAPTER LX 
The Stenographer and Typewriter 

" For your writing and reading, let that appear when there is no need,'' 

— Much Ado About Nothing. 



QuaUflca 
tions 



The successful stenographer and type- 
writer should be a person of many ac- 
complishments. He should, in 
the first place, be a thorough 
master of the art of short- 
hand writing, alert in mind, quick with 
the hand, accurate, ingenious. In the 
second place, he should understand thor- 
oughly the construction and manipula- 
tion of the type-writing machine, should 
be a good speller, should know how to 
punctuate correctly and when to use 
capital letters, and should have a prac- 
tical acquaintance with the rules of 
English grammar and composition and 
with the forms to be observed in letter- 
writing. Besides all this, a general 
knowledge of business forms and meth- 
ods is often of great benefit, sometimes 
indispensable. If, in addition to all 
these qualifications, the stenographer 
has at command a stock of information 
regarding history, politics, the sciences, 



and the arts, he may be quite sure that 
he will never want for a good position 
and a comfortable salary. 

Young men and young women who 
are obliged to help themselves to an 

education of this kind will 
^formatio^'n ^^^ ^^ Surer guide than the 

volume which they now hold 
in their hands ; they will find no better 
or more trustworthy assistant than the 
Encyclopcedia Britannica. As regards 
that sort of general education to which 
we have just alluded, let the student of 
stenography and type-writing consult 
the references named in various chap- 
ters of this Guide — for example : the 
Three Courses of Reading in History ; the 
Readings in Geography ; the Two Courses 
of Reading in Physics ; The Builder ; The 
American Citizen ; TheLaivyer ; The Mer- 
chant and Trader ; The Banker and Finan- 
cier, etc. As regards the special kind of 
knowledge which is indispensable to the 



THE PRINTER AND THE PUBLISHER 



219 



Language 



practice of his art, he will find much 
that is helpful and instructive in such 
articles as the following: 

History of the English language 
(modern), VIII, 357-60. 

Phonetics, XVIII, 824. 
Phonetic spelling, XVIII, 825. 

Speech sounds, XXII, 396. 

Alphabet, I, 527. 

Abbreviations, I, 31, and XXV, 17. 

Abbreviatory signs, XXV, 22. 

Tachygraphy, or ancient systems of 
shorthand, XVIII, 168. 



Shorthand in English-speaking coun- 
tries, XXI, 875. 

The a b c systems, XXI, 

Shorthand _ "^ ' ' 

O It). 

Pitman's phonography, XXI, 877-79. 
Foreign shorthand systems, XXI, 880. 
Sir Isaac Pitman, XXI, 875; XXVIII,436. 
Benn Pitman, XXVIII, 435. 
Parliamentary reporting, XXI, 880. 
Forms of address in letter-writing, 
XXV, 46. 

Type-writers, XXIX, 346-48. 
Type-writing machines, XXIV, 733. 



CHAPTER LXI 

The Peinter and the Publisher 

" Once invent Printing, you metamorphosed all Universities, or 
superseded them." — Thomas Carlyle. 



I. TYPOGRAPHY. 

One of the most interesting articles 
in the Encyclopcedia Britannica is that 
which relates to the history of 
Invention printing, Volume XXIII, pp. 
Printing 723-41. Here we have an ac- 
count of the first attempts at 
printing, which antedated the time of 
Gutenberg and of Caxton by many 
years, if not by many centuries. Then 
follow chapters or sections on Block- 
Printing, p. 725; on the old block-books 
of German origin, p. 726; on Early 
Printing at Mainz, p. 727; on The In- 
vention Controversy, p. 730; on Early 
Types and their Fabrication, with fac- 
similes, pp. 736-39, etc. In connection 
with the reading of this article, refer- 
ences may be made to the following 
articles: 

John Gutenberg, XI, 300. 



Great 
Printers 



Johann Fust, IX, 750. 

William Caxton, V, 243; 

books printed by him, VIII, 

369. 

Aldus Manutius, XV, 519, 521. 
Christophe Plantin, XIX, 187. 
Elzevir, VIII, 145, 
Jodocus Badius, HI, .196. 
Stephens, or Estiennes, XXII, 561. 

The History of Modern Types, XXIII, 
739, next claims our attention. The 
Italic type, first used by Aldus 
Manutius, is said to be an imi- 
tation of the handwriting of Petrarch. 
The origin of all other types in common 
use is explained in this chapter, which 
closes (pp. 740-41) with a list of works 
on the invention, progress, and process 
of printing. Some notice of early Eng- 
lish typography is given in XIV, 711, 
and also in VIII, 369. 



Types 



220 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



The latter half of the article on Typog- 
raphy, XXIII, 741-57, is devoted to 
the discussion of practical printing. 
Here are separate chapters on Type- 
setting, or Composing, p. 745; on Stereo- 
typing, electrotyping, etc., p. 748; on 
Press- Work and Presses, p. 750; on Color 
Printing, p. 755; on artistic printing, p. 
756; on the departments of a printing 
establishment, p. 757. 

In connection with this part, refer to 
the articles, Engraving, VIII, 388; and 
Lithography, XIV, 703. The following 
articles also contain additional infor- 
mation on subjects connected with the 
printer's art: 

Old Wine-press of Gutenberg, XXVIII, 
490. 

The Stanhope Press, XXVIII, 

Presses . „ „ 

490. 

The Adams Press (1824), XXVIII, 490. 

The Washington Press, XXVIII, 490. 

Job Presses, XXVIII, 491. 

Cylinder Presses, XXVIII, 491. 

Illustrated-work Printing Machines, 
XXVIII, 492. 

Perfecting Presses, XXVIII, 493. 

Mammoth Presses, XXVIII, 493. 

Lithographic Presses, XIV, 706-07; 
XXII, 752. 

Color Printing, XXVI, 238. 

Richard M. Hoe, XXVII. 299. 

University Press, XXIX, 403. 

See, especially, Proof-readers' Marks, 

XXVIII, 497. 

International Typographical Union, 
XXVII, 526. 

Type-founding, XXIII, 744. 
Type-setting machines, XXIII, 746; 

XXIX, 343. 

The linotype, XXVII, 602. 



Invention of stereotyping, X, 114. 
Electrotypes, VIII, 108. 
Type for the blind. III, 718; XXV, 
503. 
George Bruce, type-founder, XXV, 620. 
Theodore L. De Vinne, XXVI, 406. 

II. BOOKS AND BOOKSELLING. 

See the special article on Books, IV, 33. 
Constituent parts of books. III, 564. 

Ancient forms of books, 
°^^ ^ XVIII, 148. 

Books ' 

Material of ancient books, 
IV, 33-34. 

Early printed books. III, 564. 

Rare and curious books, III, 566. 

Anonymous and pseudonymous books, 
III, 569. 

Condemned and prohibited books. III, 
569. 

Bookbinding, IV, 36. 

Albums, I, 403. 

Almanacs, I, 519. 

Annals, II, 54. 

Anthologies, II, 91. 

Encyclopaedias, VIII, 173. 
Libraries, XIV, 509; Sir 
Thomas Bodley, HI, 737; Sir Robert 
Bruce Cotton, VI, 452; Magliabechi, XV, 
217; Mezzofanti, XVI, 232; Dibdin, VII, 
149; Bibliography, III, 563-74. 

Bookselling, IV, 35; book-trade in 
Europe, X, 424. 
copyright g^^^^ Tauchnitz, XXIX, 230. 

Copyright, VI, 316; English laws of 
copyright, XIV, 542; international copy- 
right, I, 631 b." 

History of copyright since 1877, XXVI, 
280. 

For other references, see Chapter 
LVII, entitled The Bookman. 



Libraries 



t^^f^^^-ff^^*^ 



CHAPTER LXII 
The Journalist 

"We read nowadays in the market place — I would rather say in 
some large steam factory of letter-press where damp sheets of new 
print whirl round us perpetually." — Frederic Harrison. 



An entertaining and valuable article 

on Newspapers is contained in the 

seventeenth volume of the 

^Srnansn. ^riiannica, Pages 422-49. 
The history of journalism in 
Great Britain is given at length, and is 
followed by an account of the newspa- 
pers of other European countries. The 
Newspapers of the United States is 
the subject of an interesting and appre- 
ciative chapter, XVII, 444-49. In a sup- 
plementary article on the same subject, 
XXVIII, 221, a complete account is given 
of the methods pursued in the publica- 
tion of a great American newspaper, 
and some hints are presented with refer- 
ence to the qualifications of the success- 
ful journalist. This article is illustrated 
with views of many of the great news- 
paper buildings. 

Methodsofgatheringnews,XXVIII,223. 

Editorial departments of a great news- 
paper, XXVIII, 224. 

Mailing of newspapers, XXVIII, 224. 

The Sunday paper, XXVIII, 224. 

Journalism as a profession,XXVIII,226. 

Associated Press organization,XXVIII, 
229. 

Several other articles in the Britan- 
nica relate directly or indirectly to this 
important subject. Among these the 
following are specially interesting: 

Acta Diurna, I, 119. 

Reporting, XX, 416; XXI, 880. 

Advertisements, I, 161. 



The article on Advertising, XXV, 52, 
is full of interesting facts relating to 
this important department of jour- 
nalism, especially in America. 

Printing of newspapers, XXIII, 748, 
755. 

Laws relating to the newspaper press, 
XIX, 729. 

Periodicals, XVIII, 546. 

History of British periodicals, XVIII, 
546; of French periodicals, same volume, 
p. 549; of American magazines and re- 
views, p. 555. 

American magazines, XXVII, 681. 

The Associated Press, XXV, 275. 

Censorship of the Press, III, 569-70. 

Press Laws, XIX, 729-33. 

See also Chapter LXI, entitled The 
Printer and The Publisher, in this Guide. 

famous journalists. 

Benjamin Franklin, IX, 626; his con- 
nection with American journalism, 
XVII, 444. 

Horace Greeley, XI, 143; 

Newspaper XVII 446 

Men ' 

George Ripley, XX, 582. 

John Walter and the "London Times," 
XXIX, 476. 

Thurlow Weed, XXIX, 513. 

William T. Stead, of the " Review of 
Reviews," XXIX, 153. 

Granier de Cassagnac, XXVII, 140. 

Charles A. Dana, XXVI, 352. 

Joseph Gales, XXVII, 55. 

(221) 



222 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Edwin L. Godkin, XXVII, 113. 
Joseph Pulitzer, XXVIII, 518. 
James Gordon Bennett, III, 495. 
James Gordon Bennett, Jr., XXV, 428. 
John W. Forney, XXVII, 7. 
Henry J. Raymond, XXVIII, 556. 
Whitelaw Reid, XXVIII, 572. 
Joseph Medill, XXVIII, 63. 



Henry Watterson, XXIX, 506. 

Allen Thorndyke Rice, XXVIII, 587. 

John Russell Young, XXIX, 622. 

See also Chapters VII, XLII, LIX, and 
LXI, entitled Five Couj'ses of Reading in 
the History of Literature, The American 
Citizen, The Writer, and The Printer and 
the Publisher, in this Guide. 



CHAPTER LXIII 



The Artist 



" In framing an artist, art hath thus decreed 
To make some good, but others to exceed." 

— Pericles. 



I. PAINTING. 

A GENERAL examination of the place 
of painting among the Fine Arts will 

be found in the article under 
''painting ^hat heading, Volume IX, p. 

179. But the most interest- 
ing and by far the most valuable article 
on this subject is that entitled Schools 
OF Painting, XXI, 450-69. This article 
may be read by sections, with collateral 
references to other articles and to the 
notices of individual painters, as indi- 
cated below: 

1. Classical School of Painting. 

For the early history of painting 
among the Greeks and Romans, see Vol- 
ume II, pp. 308, 313, 317, 320. 

See also Zeuxis, XXIV, 822; Parrha- 
sius, XVIII, 326; Sicyon, II, 305; Apel- 
les, II, 149. 

2. Italian School of Painting, XXI, 
451; Giotto, X, 543; Masaccio, XV, 611 ; 
Fra Lippo Lippi, XIV, 690; Sandro Bot- 
ticelli, IV, 150; Michelangelo, XVI, 237; 
Andrea del Sarto, XXI, 330; Giorgio 



Vasari, XXIV, 102; Raphael Sanzio, XX, 
286; Leonardo da Vinci, XIV, 456; Sal- 
vator Rosa, XX, 869; Titian, XXIII, 441. 

3. German School of Painting, XXI, 
457; Hans Holbein, XII, 55; Albrecht 
Durer, VII, 478; Hans Holbein, the 
younger, XII, 56; Anton Raphael Mengs, 
XVI, 14; Julius Schnorr, XXI, 434; 
Johann Friedrich Overbeck, XVIII, 80; 
Wilhelm von Kaulbach, XIV, 18. 

4. Flemish School of Painting, XXI, 
457; Van Eyck, VIII, 712; Van der Wey- 
den, XXI, 458; Hans Memling, XV, 854; 
Quintin Matsys, XV, 626; Antonio Moro, 
XVI, 856; Rubens, XXI, 46; Vandyck, 
XXIV, 66. 

5. Dutch School of Painting, XXI, 459; 
Ruysdael, XXI, 459; Vandevelde, XXIV, 
66; Paul Potter, XIX, 617; Hobbema, 
XII, 32; Rembrandt, XX, 385. 

6. Spanish School of Painting, XXI, 
459; Zurbaran, XXIV, 868; Velasquez, 
XXIV, 143; Murillo, XVII, 61; Goya, XI, 
20; Fortuny, XXI, 460. 



THE ARTIST 



223 



7. French School of Painting, XXI, 
460; Nicolas Poussin, XIX, 669; Claude 
Lorraine, V, 711; Watteau, XXIV, 436; 
Claude Vernet, XXIV, 183; Prud'hon, 
XX, 5; Horace Vernet, XXIV, 183; Dela- 
roche, VII, 38; Rousseau, XXI, 28; Mil- 
let, XVI, 334; XXVIII, 100; Corot, VI, 
382; Meissonier, XXVIII, 65; Regnault, 
XX, 359; Rosa Bonheur, XXV, 541. 

Impressionism in French Art, XXVII, 
368. 

8. British School of Painting, XXI, 
460; Hogarth, XII, 49; Sir Joshua Rey- 
nolds, XX, 516; Gainsborough, X, 15; 
John Hoppner, XII, 162; George Rom- 
ney, XX, 861; Richard Wilson, XXIV, 
624; Paul Sandby, XXI, 269; Sir Henry 
Raeburn, XX, 225; William Blake, III, 
698; John Crome, VI, 527; John Con- 
stable, VI, 264; Eastlake, VII, 532; Sir 
Edwin Landseer, XIV, 280; Holman 
Hunt, XXVII, 341-42; J. M. W. Turner, 
XXIII, 705; Dante Gabriel Rossetti, XX, 
880; E. J. Poynter, XXVIII, 476; Burne- 
Jones, XXV, 652; Sir Frederick Leighton, 
XXVII, 573-74; Sir John Millais, XXVIII, 
98; George F. Watts, XXIX, 506. 

9. American Painters: Thomas Hill, 
XXVII, 290; Winslow Homer, XXVII, 
309; William M. Hunt, XXVII, 342; 
George Inness, XXVII, 390; Eastman 
Johnson, XXVII, 454; John La Farge, 
XXVII, 534; Will H. Low, XXVII, 637; 
F.D.Millet, XXVIII, 101; Washington 
Allston, XXV, 142: John Singleton Cop- 
ley, VI, 308; Benjamin West, XXIV, 533; 
John S. Sargent, XXVIII, 676. 

II. PROCESSES OF PAINTING. 

Materials used in Painting, XVIII, 141. 

Painting in water-colors, XVIII, 143, 
and XIX, 94. 

Enamel — on metal, VIII, 167; in 
jewelry, XIII, 689; in pottery, XIX, 618. 



Encaustic painting, VIII, 170. 
Genre-painting, XXVII, 76. 
Fresco, IX, 676. 
Ki^ds Raphael's frescos, XX, 290. 

Painting Glass-paiutiug, X, 596. 

Aureola, III, 78. 
Tempera, XXIII, 173. 
Illumination, XII, 745. 
Mural Decoration, XVII, 40-54, a 
beautifully illustrated article. 
Wall-painting, XVII, 45-54. 
Miniatures, XVI, 456. 
Crayon, or Pastel, VI, 492. 

III. SCULPTURE. 

For the history of Greek and Roman 

sculpture, see the article on Classical 

Archeology, II, 291-322; also 

History Phidias,XVIII,747; Polycletus, 

sculpture XIX, 430; Scopas, II, 315; 
Praxiteles, XIX, 680; Ly sip- 
pus, XV, 121; Arcesilaus, II, 286. 

Assyrian Sculpture, III, 164. 

Etrurian Art, VIII, 561. 

Early Christian Sculpture, XXI, 583. 

Mediseval and Modern Sculpture, XXI, 
583-99. 

English Sculpture, XXI, 584; John 
Flaxman, IX, 260; Francis Chantrey, V, 
343; Alfred Stevens, XXI, 588. 

French Sculpture, XXI, 588; Jean 
Antoine Houdon, XII, 327; Francois 
Rude, XXI, 56; David, VI, 736; Antoine 
Louis Barye, XXV, 376. 

German Sculpture, XXI, 590; Vischer, 
XXI, 592; Schluter, XXI, 593; Albert 
Wolff, XXI, 593; August Kiss, XXVII, 505. 

Spanish Sculpture, XXI, 593. 

Italian Sculpture, XXI, 594; Pisano, 
XIX, 131, 132; Donatello, VII, 310; Or- 
cagna, XVII, 837; Ghiberti, X, 506; 
Michelangelo, XVI, 237; Raphael, XX, 
293; Giovanni da Bologna, XXI, 596; 
Benvenuto Cellini, V, 255; Bernini, III, 
522; Canova, V, 22. 



224 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Venetian Sculpture, XXIV, 169; Ver- 
onese, XXIV, 186. 

Scandinavian Sculpture, XXI, 597; 
Thorwaldsen, XXIII, 335. 

American Sculpture: Hiram Powers, 
XIX, 670; Thomas Crawford, VI, 491; 
Horatio Grreenough, XI, 155; Henry Kirke 
Brown, XXV, 612; W. W. Story, XXIX, 
168; Harriet Hosmer, XXVII, 325; John 
Rogers, XXVIII, 607; Larkin G. Mead, 
XXVIII, 56; Augustus St. Gaudens, 
XXVIII, 645; R. S. Greenough, XXVII, 
167; Clark Mills, XXVIII, 101; Frederick 
McMonnies, XXVII, 676. 

Technical methods of sculpture (how 
a piece of statuary is made), XXI, 598. 

Alto relievo, I, 565. 

Relief, IX, 179; relief in wall decora- 
tions, XVII, 40; relations of sculpture to 
the Fine Arts, IX, 179. 

IV. POTTERY, ETC. 

The special article on this subject, 

XIX, 617-64, is one of much interest, 

amply and beautifully illus- 

pottery tratcd. The article on Ceramic 

Porcelain Art, XXVI, 97, describcs the 

development of this art since 

1880, and is full of interesting facts. 

See also the article on the Pottery 

Industry in the United States, XXVIII, 

473-74. 

Prehistoric Pottery, XIX, 619. 

Egyptian pottery, XIX, 620. 

Assyrian, XIX, 621. 

Phoenician, XIX, 623. 

Hellenic, XIX, 629. 

Etruscan, XIX, 633. 

Graeco-Roman and Roman, XIX, 635. 

Persian and Moslem, XIX, 638. 

Teutonic and Saxon, XIX, 642. 

Medieval, XIX, 643. 

Majolica-ware, XIX, 643. 

Faience, XXVI, 609. 

Spanish and Portuguese, XIX, 648. 



French, XIX, 648. 

Bernard Palissy, XVIII, 190. 

Mediaeval German-ware, XIX, 650. 

English, XIX, 651. 

Josiah Wedgwood, XXIV, 503. 

Ancient Mexican-ware, XIX, 652. 

Chinese porcelain, XIX, 653. 

Kaolin, XIV, 3. 

Japanese pottery, XIII, 600. 

Sevres-ware, XIX, 657. 

Dresden-ware, XIX, 659. 

English porcelain, XIX, 660. 

Terra-cotta, XXIII, 207; Assyrian 
terra-cotta, II, 350; Etruscan, VIII, 565; 
Japanese, XIII, 600. 

Tiles, XXIII, 414; encaustic tiles, VIII, 
171; for wall-linings, XVII, 41. 

Mosaic-work, XVI, 876; of Egyptians 
and Romans, XVI, 877; of the Middle 
Ages, XVI, 879. 

V. METAL-WORK, 

Metal-work as an ornamental art, 
XVI, 76. 

Metal-work of Greece, XVI, 79. 

Of Italy, XVI, 80. 

Of England, XVI, 82. 

Of Germany, XVI, 83. 
Brasses Brasscs, IV, 197; VII, 602. 
Bronzes Brouzo-work, XVI, 77. 

Japanese bronze-work, XIII, 601. 

Chinese bronze-work, IV, 330. 

Venetian bronze-work, XXIV, 169. 

Iron-work in architecture, II, 410. 

Hammered metal-work, XVI, 78. 

Damaskeening, VI, 698. 

VI. WOOD-WORK. 

WooD-CARViNG, XXIV, 678, a six-page 
illustrated article treating mainly of 
ancient and mediaeval work, 
wood- Wood-carving in Switzer- 

carving land, XXII, 818. 
Buhl-work, IV, 399. 



THE ARTIST 



225 



Inlaying, XIII, 88. 
Marquetry, IX, 746. 

VII. PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Special article on Photography, XVIII, 

834-54, with supplement giving an ac- 

progress count of the most recent im- 

ofPhotog- provements and discoveries, 

raphy XXVIII, 410. See also: 

Daguerre, VI, 671. 

Niepce, XVII, 508. 

W. H. Fox Talbot, XXIII, 32. 

Photogravure, XXII, 754. 

Photo-engraving, XVIII, 847. 

Photolithography, XVIII, 846-47. 

Camera, IV, 654-55; XVIII, 853; 
XXVI, 26. 

Instantaneous photography, XXVIII, 
411. 

Photographs in natural colors, XXVIII, 
412. 

Woodburytypes, XXIX, 585. 

Albertypes, XXV, 121. 

Artotypes, XXV, 264. 

Photochronograph, XXVIII, 410, 417. 

Dry plates, XXVIII, 413. 

Plantinotypes and kallitypes, XXVIII, 
416. 

Astronomical photography, XXVIII, 
416. 

Roentgen, or X rays, XXVI, 539; 
XXVIII, 412. 

VIII. ENGRAVING. 

Special article on Engraving, VIII, 
388. A valuable supplementary article 
on engraving, giving an ac- 
count of the latest advance- 
ment made in the art, may be 
found in XXVI, 577-80. Wood-engrav- 
ing, VIII, 388; early engraving on wood, 
V, 88; in time of Albrecht Diirer, VII, 
478; Bewick, III, 537. 

Copper and steel plate engraving, 
VIII, 391; Mantegna, XV, 508; Audran, 
III, 61; Ferdinand Gaillard, VIII, 394. 

15 



History of 
Engraving 



Drawing 



Half-tone process, XXVI, 578. 
Wax process, XXVI, 579. 
Etching, VIII, 394. 
Mezzotint, VIII, 396. 
Lithography, XXVII, 610. 

IX. MISCELLANEOUS. 

Drawing, VII, 385-90. Beginning on 
p. 387, the article is an interesting and 
very readable critique on the 
art of delineation as practiced 
by different artists and in different 
countries. 

Illumination of written or printed 
texts, XII, 745; illuminated borders of 
books, XXIII, 741. 

Illuminated manuscripts, VI, 399; XII, 
745. 

Caricature, V, 91. 

Arabesques, II, 203. 

Embossing, VIII, 148. 

Stamped leather for wall-decoration, 
XVII, 43. 

Embroidery, VIII, 148. 

Gilding, X, 530. 

Etching, VIII, 394. 

Lacquer-work, XIV, 195. 

Lapidary, XIV, 298. 

Cameo, IV, 653; cameos of 
mediaBval times, IV, 653. 
Work in ivory, XIII, 530. 

Jewelry, XIII, 686-90. 

Decalcomania, XXVI, 376. 

X. ILLUSTRATORS. 

George Cruikshank, XXVI, 323. 
Felix 0. Darley, XXVI, 355. 
Gustavo Dore, XXVI, 438. 
John Leech, XIV, 405. 
Sir John Tenniel, XXIX, 251. 
George du Maurier, XXVI, 465. 
Charles S. Keene, XXVII, 483. 
Mary Hallock Foote, XXVI, 677. 
"Alfred Crowquill," XXVII, 8. 
Harry Furniss, XXVII, 50. 



Ornamen 
tation 



226 



GUIDE TO THE BRTTANNICA 



Charles D. Gibson, XXVII, 93. 
William Hamilton Gibson, XXVII, 93. 
Bernhard Gillam, XXVII, 97. 
Kate Greenaway, XXVII, 164. 
Augustus Hoppin, XXVII, 320. 



Thomas Nast, XXVIII, 172. 
Joseph Pennell, XXVIII, 375. 
Charles S. Reinhart, XXVIII, 572. 
Frederic Remington, XXVIII, 573. 
See Art Unions, XXV, 264. 



CHAPTER LXIV 
The Musician 

"Such sweet compulsion doth in music lie." — Milton. 



Although America has not yet pro- 
duced a great composer of music, it has 
nevertheless a copious and important 
musical history. The article on Music 
IN America, XXVIII, 162, wherein this 
history is narrated, will therefore be 
read with great interest, and doubtless 
also with profit, by every American 
musician who wishes to know anything 
about the origin and progress of music 
in his own country. 

In the seventeenth volume of the 
EncyclopcBclia Britannica (pp. 84-108), 
Professor Macfarren, of the 
° of Music. University of Cambridge, pre- 
sents an excellent and com- 
prehensive history of music, tracing its 
progress through western civilization, 
and showing how it has been changed 
from an artificial, or calculated form to 
a natural, or spontaneous one. This 
article not only appeals specially to 
musicians and students of music, but 
contains much that will interest the 
casual reader. It may be taken as the 
basis of a short course of study on this 
subject. It may be read in sections in 
connection with other special articles, 
as follows: 

Origin of musical instruments, p. 85. 
See list of musical instruments, p. 227. 



Harmony 



Musical intervals, XVII, 85, 109. 

Affinity of music to astronomy, XVII, 
85. See Pythagoras, XX, 143. 

Antiphony, XVII, 86; also II, 118. 

Scales, XVII, 88. 

Time in music, XXIX, 289. 

Tone in music, XXIX, 300. 

Harmony, XVII, 88. Special article 
on. VII, 512. The principles of har- 
mony are treated still further 
in part IV of the article Acous- 
tics, I, 100. 

Counterpoint, XVII, 89. 

Academies of music, XVII, 90. See 
also Academy, I, 75, and Conservatory, 
VI, 260. 

Troubadours, XVII, 91; also VII, 357; 
Minstrel, XVI, 502. 

Oratorio, XVII, 92-107; also Handel's, 
XI, 387; Haydn's, XI, 481 ; Mendelssohn's, 
XVI, 10; in America, XXVIII, 164. 

Hymns, XVII, 92; also the special ar- 
ticle on that subject, XII, 612. 

Psalmody in America, XXVIII, 163. 

Choral tunes, XVII, 93. 

Opera. XVII, 94, 106. See Scarlatti, 
XXI, 392; Lully, XV, 64; Wagner, XXIV, 
334. 

Cantata, XVII, 95. 

Symphony, XVII, 102. 

Among the many other articles on 



THE MUSICIAN 



227 



Vocal 
Music 



musical subjects the following are of 
special interest: 

Voice, and vocal music, XXIV, 293. 

Plain song or chant, XIX, 
179. 
Anthem, II, 91. 

Agnus Dei, I, 254. 

Almai (Egyptian singers), I, 521. 

Ballads, HI, 244. 

Glee, X, 604. 

Madrigal, XV, 193. 

Minuet, XVI, 515. 

Scientific basis of music, XVII, 109-13, 
an excellent article by Professor Bosan- 
quet, of the Royal College of Music, 
London. 

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Accordion, I, 86. 

Concertina, XXVI, 247. 

Drum, VII, 414. 

Flute, IX, 307. 

Transverse flute, XXIII, 552. 

Flageolet, IX, 307. 

Bassoon, III, 368. 

Lyre, XV, 114. 

^olian harp, I, 165, and XXV, 54. 

Harp, XI, 436. 

Guitar, XI, 237. 

Lute, XV, 71. 

Mandolin, XV, 72. 

Violin, XXIV, 260. 

Violoncello, XXIV, 263. 

Banjo, XXV, 344. 

Hornpipe, XII, 175. 

French horn, XII, 171. 

Dulcimer, XXVI, 464. 

Oboe, or hautboy, XVII, 724. 

Clarinet, XVII, 727. 

Trumpet, XXIII, 629. 

Trombone, XXIII, 623. 

Ophicleide, XVII, 799. 

Organ, XVII, 852-63. 

Barrel-organs, XXV, 368. 

Pianoforte, XIX, 72-87. 



Composers 



Zither, XXIX, 631. 
Autoharp, XXV, 303. 

MUSICAL COMPOSERS, SINGERS, AND IN- 
STRUMENTAL PERFORMERS. 

These are so numerous that we shall 
name only some of the most famous. 
Reference to others may easily be made 
by consulting the Index volume. 

Palestrina (1524 ?-94), XVIII, 183. 
Lully (1633-87), XV, 64. 

Purcell (1658-95), XX, 118. 
Scarlatti (1659-1725), XXI, 392. 
Handel (1685-1759), XI, 387. 
Bach (1685-1750), III, 168. 
Gluck (1714-87), X, 618. 
Haydn (1732-1809), XI, 481. 
Clementi (1752-1832), V, 720. 
Mozart (1756-91), XVII, 14. 
Cherubini (1760-1842), V, 510. 
Beethoven (1770-1827), III, 435. 
Spontini (1774-1851), XXII, 446. 
Boieldieu (1775-1834), III, 749. 
Auber (1782-1871), III, 58. 
Weber (1786-1826), XXIV, 494. 
Czerny (1791-1857), VI, 666. 
Rossini (1792-1868), XX, 883. 
Schubert (1797-1828), XXI, 479. 
Donizetti (1798-1848), VII, 315. 
Halevy (1799-1862), XI, 341. 
Bellini (1802-35), III, 473. 
Berlioz (1803-69), III, 516. 
Balfe (1808-70), III, 241. 
Mendelssohn (1809-47), XVI, 10. 
Chopin (1810-49), V, 595. 
Schumann (1810-56), XXI, 480. 
Liszt (1811-86), XXVII, 609. 
Verdi (1813-1901), XXIX, 430. 
Wagner (1813-83), XXIV, 334. 
Sir W. Sterndale Bennett (1816-75), 
III, 496. 
Gounod (1818-93), XXVII, 132. 
Offenbach (1819-80), XVII, 752. 
Johann Strauss (1825-99), XXIX, 170. 



228 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Directors 



Brahms (1833-97), XXV, 570. 
Bizet (1838-75), XXV, 488. 
Tschaikowsky (1840-93), XXIX, 328. 
Dvorak (1841-), XXVI, 473. 
Sir Arthur S. Sullivan (1842-1900), 
XXIX, 191. 
Massenet (1842-), XXVIII, 48. 
Grieg (1843-), XXVII, 172. 
Leoncavallo (1858-), XXVII, 578. 
Mascagni (1863-), XXVIII, 41-42. 

Lowell Mason, XXVIII, 43, 163. 
Theodore Thomas, XXVIII, 165; XXIX, 
271. 
Leopold Damrosch, XXVI, 
352; XXVIII, 165. 
Hans Richter, XXVIII, 591. 
Dudley Buck, XXV, 629; XXVIII, 166. 
Reginald de Koven, XXVI, 385. 
Anton Seidl, XXVIII, 166; XXIX, 50. 

John Braham (1774-1856), IV, 180. 
Manoel Garcia (1775-1832), X, 67. 

Lablache (1794-1858), XXVII, 

Singers ^^5^ 

Pasta (1798-1865), XXVIII, 346. 

Duprez (1806-96), XXVI, 468. 

Malibran (1808-36), X, 67 a'"; XXVIII, 7. 

Formes (1810-89), XXVII, 7. 

Grisi (1811 ?-69), XXVII, 175. 

Mario (1810-83), XXVIII, 30. 

Anna Bishop (1814-84), XXV, 484. 

Clara Novello (1818-), XXVIII, 265. 

Jenny Lind (Goldschmidt, 1820-87), 
XXVII, 119. 

J. Sims Reeves (1822-1900),XXVIII,566. 

Alboni (1826-94), XXV, 122. 

Adelaide Phillipps (1833-82), XXVIII, 
406. 

Parepa Rosa (1836-74), XXVIII, 618. 

Trebelli (1838-92), XXIX, 312. 

Carlotta Patti (1840-89), XXVIII, 363. 

Lucca (Wallhofen, 1842-), XXIX, 475. 



Pianists 



Kellogg (Strakosch, 1842-), XXIX, 170. 
Annie Louise Gary (1842 -), XXVI, 78. 
Adelina Patti (1843-), XXVIII, 363. 
Nilsson (Miranda, 1843-), XXVIII, 110. 
Albani (1847-), XXV, 118. 
Jean de Reszke (1852-), XXVI, 401. 
Edouard de Reszke (1856-), XXVI, 401. 
Gerster (Gardini, 1857-), XXVII, 64. 
Sembrich (1858-), XXIX, 52. 
Nordica (Dome, 1858?-), XXVI, 435. 
Melba (1865-), XXVIII, 66. 
Calve (1866-), XXVI, 22. 
Emma Eames (Story, 1868-), XXIX, 
167-68. 

dementi (1752-1832), V, 720. 
Moscheles (1794-1870), XVI, 882. 
Thalberg (1812-71), XXIII, 235. 

Sir Charles Halle (1819-95), 
XXVII, 216. 
Gottschalk (1829-69), XXVII, 131; 
XXVIII, 166. 
Von Billow (1830-94), XXV, 644. 
Rubinstein (1829-94), XXVIII, 628. 
Paderewski (I860-), XXVIII, 315. 
Rosenthal (1862-), XXVIII, 620. 

Corelli (1653-1713), VI, 350. 
Paganini (1784-1840), XVIII, 138. 

Ole Bull (1810-80), XXV,639-40. 
Violinists, g^^g^ (1814-65), VIII, 466. 

Remenyi (1830-98),XXVIII,573. 
Joachim (1831-), XXVII, 451. 
Lady Halle (Norman-Neruda, 1840-), 
XXVII, 217. 
Sarasate (1844-), XXVIII, 674. 
Piatti(violoncellist,1822-),XXVIII,421. 
Bottesini(contrabassist,1823-89),XXV, 

554. 

Violin-makers: Stradivari, XXIV, 263; 
Amati, I, 575. See Cremona, VI, 502, 
and XVII, 105. 



CHAPTER LXV 



The Actor and Dramatist 

" The best actors in the world, either for tragedy, comedy." — Hamlet. 



The word drama is from the Greek 
drao, meaning action. The invention 

of dramatic art is the direct 
'" m-ania outcome of a universal quality 

of human nature — the desire 
to imitate. Aristotle says that this 
desire is instinctive in man from his 
infancy. Children are perpetually going 
out of themselves ; it is one of their 
chief amusements to represent those 
grown people whom they have had an 
opportunity of observing, or whatever 
strikes their fancy ; " and, with the 
happy pliancy of their imagination, they 
can exhibit all the characteristics of 
any dignity they may choose to assume, 
be it that of a father, a schoolmaster, or 
a king," Here, then, is the first step 
towards the invention of the dramatic 
art. Imitation of action by action, how- 
ever simple and unpremeditated, is 
drama in embryo. The business of the 
dramatist is to invent this action and to 
mould it into a form sanctioned by the 
laws of literature. It is the business of 
the actor to present this action in its 
concrete form, agreeably to the laws of 
histrionic art. The actor is only the 
temporary interpreter of the dramatist. 
The history of the drama, which in- 
cludes both dramatic literature and its 

presentation on the stage, is 

a subject very interesting not 
only to all actors and dramatists, but 
to students of literature and art and 
humanity, and even to "the general 
reader." 



History 



The Encyclopcedia Britannica presents 
that history in a form adapted to the 
convenience of all who care to peruse 
it, while its various related topics are so 
grouped and arranged as to afford every 
convenience for ready consultation. 
The following references, including the 
entire history of the drama and of 
dramatic representation, will point the 
way to several courses of systematic 
reading : 

I, HISTORY OP THE DRAMA. 

Egyptian drama, VII, 348, 
Chinese drama, VII, 346. 
Hindu drama, VII, 343. 
The Sakuntala of Kalidasa, XIII, 838; 
VII, 343. 

The Greek drama, VII, 349, comprised 
two great divisions, tragedy and com- 
edy. 

The traditional inventor of tragedy 
was Thespis, VII, 349: hence the expres- 
sion Thespian art, so often 
Drama ^^^^ ^^ designate dramatic art. 
Tragedy was defined by 
Plato as an imitation of the noblest 
life. 

Comedy had its origin in sport; it was 
" the village song," the rustic jest, and 
formed the most complete contrast to 
tragedy. 

Origin of tragedy, XI, 125. 

The great masters of Greek tragedy 
were iEschylus, I, 188; VII, 350; Sopho- 

(229) 



230 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



cles, XXII, 284; and Euripides, VIII, 
590; XI, 125. 

The construction of the Greek tragedy 
was essentially different from that of 
the modern play. See Vll, 351. 

Origin of comedy, VII, 352. 

The greatest master of Greek comedy, 
although by no means its inventor, was 
Aristophanes, II, 446. He was the rep- 
resentative of the Old Comedy, the dis- 
tinctive features of which are described 
in VII, 352. 

Of the Middle and the New Comedies, 
the greatest names are those of Eubulus 
and Menander, XVI, 5. 

The Attic drama, represented by the 
great names just mentioned, had its 
origin in religion, VII, 353. Its religious 
character had much to do in modifying 
its representation upon the stage. 

The Roman Drama — its origin, VII, 
354. 

Livius Andronicus, who was both 
dramatist and actor, produced the first 
regular Roman tragedy and the first 
great Roman comedy, XIV, 729; VII, 
354. Other tragedians were: 

Gnseus Naevius, XVII, 168. 
^o'^ama Quintus Eunius, VIII, 398; 

XX, 736. 

Lucius Accius, I, 80. 

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, XXI, 690. 

Of the writers of Latin comedy the 
greatest names are 

T. Maccius Plautus, XIX, 226. 

Terence, XXIII, 203; XVI, 6. 

With the triumph of the Christian 
Church in the 4th century, the Roman 
drama came to an end, VII, 356. 

The Christian drama had its origin in 
dramatic compositions written doubt- 
less for educational purposes as early as 
the 5th century. 



Mediaeval 
Plays 



St. Gregory Nazianzus, XI, 160; VII, 
357. 
Hrosvitha, XII, 340. 

Mystery-plays, VII, 357. 
Miracle-plays, V, 281. 
Moralities, VIII, 371; VII, 357. 
Passion-play of Oberammergau, XVII, 
723; XXVIIl, 270. 

The English drama was the offshoot 
of the miracle-plays and moralities 
which survived even after the regular 
tragedy and comedy of the modern stage 
had begun their course. 

The first tragedy proper in 
^"SlSa t^e English tongue was Gor- 
boduc, by Thomas Sackville, 
Lord Buckhurst, VIII, 371. 

The earliest English comedy now ex- 
tant was Balph Bolster Doister, by 
Nicholas Udall, XXIII, 763. 

"Out of such promises as these the 
glories of our drama were ripened by 
the warmth and light of the great 
Elizabethan age." Of the Elizabethan 
dramatists, the following are the most 
famous: 

JohnLyly, VII, 371;XV, 104. 

Thomas Kyd, XXI, 799. 

Christopher Marlowe, XV, 563. 

George Peele, XVIII, 468. 

Robert Greene, XI, 146. 

Thomas Lodge, XIV, 774; XVIII, 351. 

Thomas Nash, XVII, 242. 

William Shakespeare, XXI, 773, 
(See Index volume, page 820.) 

Ben Jonson, XIII, 751. 

John Webster, VII, 373. 

Francis Beaumont, III, 405, 

John Fletcher, XVIII, 352. 

Philip Massinger, XV, 624. 

The Puritans and the Drama, VII, 
374-75. 

Milton's Comus, XVI, 338. 

Sir William Davenant, VI, 735. 



THE ACTOR AND DRAMATIST 



231 



Drama of the Restoration, VII, 375-76. 
John Dryden, VII, 421; VIII, 377. 
William Wycherley, XXIV, 741. 
William Congreve, VI, 240. 
Sir John Vanbrugh, XXIV, 61. 

Drama of the 18th century, VII, 
376-79. 

Addison's Cato, VIII, 379; VII, 376. 

Home's Douglas, XII, 111. 

Allan Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, XX, 
278. 

Gay's Beggar's Opera, X, 108. 

Henry Fielding's comedies, IX, 125; 
VIII, 383. 

Goldsmith's comedies, X, 678; VII, 
378. 

Sheridan's comedies, VII, 378; XXI, 
833. 

Drama of the 19th century, VII, 
379-80. 

Byron's Manfred, IV, 537; VII, 379. 

Shelley's The Cenci, VII, 379; XXI, 
830. 

Bulwer-Lytton's Richelieu, XV, 122. 

Modern Italian Drama, VII, 360-61. 
Cinthio's Hecatommithi, X, 553. 

Marquis S. Maffei, XV, 197. 

Alfieri, I, 443. 

Manzoni, XV, 522. 
Ariosto's comedies, VII, 361. 
Guarini's Pastor Fido, XI, 210. 
Goldoni, X, 676; XIII, 523. 

The Spanish Drama, XXII, 370, 372; 
VII, 362. 

Cervantes, XXII, 370; V, 302. 
'Tama ^ope de Vega, XXII, 371; 

VII, 364; XXIV, 132. 

Calderon de la Barca, XXII, 373; IV, 
585. 

Moreto, VII, 365; XVI, 847. 

Cienfuegos, V, 677. 

Bartolome Torres Naharro, XXII, 370. 



Italian 
Drama 



French 
Drama 



German 
Drama 



The French Drama, VII, 365. 
Bible-plays, IX, 571; miracle-plays, 

IX, 572. 

Stephen Jodelle, VII, 366; XX, 864. 
The Classical Drama, IX, 577. 
Robert Garnier, VII, 366. 
Corneille, VII, 367; IX, 578. 
Racine, IX, 586. 
Voltaire, XXIV, 305; IX, 592. 

Moliere, IX, 582; XVI, 646. 

Victor Hugo, VII, 369 ; IX, 597. 

Minor dramatists, IX, 583. 
Dramatists of the Empire, IX, 596. 
Victorien Sardou, XXVIII, 675. 
Theatre Fran^ais, XXIX, 262. 

The German Drama, X, 474; VII, 380. 

Lessing, VII, 381; X, 479. 

"Sturm und Drang," VII, 
382; X, 483. 
Goethe, X, 480, 643; VII, 382. 
Schiller, XXI, 412; X, 481. 
Hans Sachs, X, 473; Gustav Freytag, 

X, 487. 

The Romantic School, VII, 382. 
Later Dramatists, X, 487. 
Sudermann, XXIX, 189. 

The Dutch Drama, XII, 94, 99. 
Hooft, XII, 97, 150. 
Van den Vondel, VII, 383; 
XII, 97. 

Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgium), 
XXVII, 680. 

The Scandinavian Drama, VII, 80, 383; 
XVII, 605. 
Holberg, XH, 58. 
Oehlenschlager, XVII, 751. 
Bjornstjerne Bjornson, XVII, 605. 
Henrik Ibsen, XVII, 605. 

II. THE THEATRE. 

By this w^ord we have reference to a 
place specially devised for dramatic 
representations. See the following arti- 



Dutch 
Drama 



232 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Theatres 



The Stage 



cles or parts of articles in the Encyclo- 
pcedia Britannica : 

The Greek theatre, its invention and 
plan, XXIII, 240; II, 362. 

Dionysiac Theatre at Athens, III; 5, 

The Roman theatre, VII, 356; XXIII, 
242; II, 367. 

Amphitheatre, X, 60; I, 679, 

Colosseum, II, 367; XXIII, 
448. 

Early English theatres, VII, 370; 
XXIII, 243. 

Blackfriars Theatre, VIII, 373. 

Globe Theatre, XXI, 797. 

Theatres of Paris, XXIII, 243; XVIII, 
281. 

Drury Lane Theatre, XXIII, 244. 

Theatres of New York, XVII, 473. 

Chinese theatres, V, 578. 

The stage in Greek theatres, 
VII, 353. 

In Roman theatres, VII, 356. 

In early English theatres, VIII, 374. 

In modern theatres, XXIII, 243. 

€ostumes and scenery, XXIII, 244. 

Masks in Greek tragedy, VII, 353. 

The cothurnus, VII, 353. 

The Coventry-plays, VII, 358. 

Pageants, VII, 359. 

Masques, VII, 373. 

ni. ACTORS AND ACTING. 

The Histrionic Art, VII, 343; IX, 182. 

Actors: Greek, VII, 353; Roman, VII, 
356; Hindu, VII, 345; English, VII, 375, 
379; Chinese, VII, 348. 

Livius Andronicus, XIV, 729. 

Richard Burbage, XXI, 797. 

Thomas Betterton, III, 533. 

David Garrick, X, 76. 

Sarah Siddons, XXII, 38. 

John Kemble, XIV, 32. 

Fanny Kemble, XXVII, 485. 

Edmund Kean, XIV, 23. 

William Charles Macready, XV, 167. 



Helen Faucit (Lady Martin), XXVIII, 
37-38. 

Barton Booth, IV, 43. 

Junius Brutus Booth, XXV, 545-46. 

Edwin Booth, XXV, 545. 

Lawrence Barrett, XXV, 369. 

Dion Boucicault, XXV, 555. 

Tommaso Salvini, XXVIII, 660. 

Ernesto Rossi, XXVIII, 621. 

Anna C. Mowatt (Ritchie),XXVIII,595. 

Edwin Forrest, XXVII, 8. 

James H. Hackett, XXVII, 208. 

Joseph Jefferson, XXVII, 445. 

Charlotte Cushman, XXVI, 340. 

John E. McCullough, XXVII, 660-61. 

Lilian Adelaide Neilson, XXVIII, 193. 

Mary Anderson (Navarro),XXVIII,179. 

Richard Mansfield, XXVIII, 18. 

Maggie Mitchell, XXVIII, 119. 

Fanny Davenport, XXVI, 361. 

Clara Morris, XXVIII, 144. 

Sir Henry Irving, XXVII, 421-22. 

Ellen Terry, XXIX, 255. 

Helena Modjeska, XXVIH, 121. 

Hortense Rhea, XXVIII, 582. 

Minnie (Maddern) Fiske, XXVI,655-56. 

Julia (Marlowe) Taber, XXIX, 216. 

In general, the names and biographies 
of all the most popular actors on the 
American stage may be found by con- 
sulting the American supplements to 
the Encyclopcedia Britannica. 

IV. THE ART OF DRAMATIC COMPOSITION. 

See VII, 338-43. 

In the first place, a dramatic action 
must possess unity. See VII, 339 ; X VI,87. 
It must be complete. See VII, 339. 
Prologues and epilogues, VII, 340. 
See Chorus in Greek Drama, XVII, 87. 
Climax and catastrophe, VII, 340. 
Characterization, VII, 341. 
Consistency, VII, 341. 
Tragedy and comedy, VII, 342. 
Gesture, speech, costume, VII, 342-43. 



CHAPTER LXVI 



The Home-Maker 

" Our books, gardens, family, scenery, might all bring forth to us 
far greater wealth of enjoyment and improvement if we tried to squeeze 
the very utmost out of them." — Charles Buxton, 

" A home without books is like a room without windows." 

— Henry Ward Beecher. 



The Britannica would be lacking in 
completeness if it did not contain a 
number of practical articles on topics 
of domestic interest and utility. An 
examination of any single volume will 
show that it is not in the least deficient 
in this respect. To any person having 
in charge the affairs of a home or a 
family, this great work offers a variety 
of useful information that is not to be 
found in any similar publication. 

A. THE HOUSEHOLD. 

Do you think of building a house for 
yourself? See the article on Building, 
IV, 400. Consult, also, the 
supplementary article on 
American Architecture, XXV, 
224; and notice the practical references 
in Chapter XXIX, entitled The Builder, 
in this GruiDE. Then refer to the fol- 
lowing valuable articles or parts of arti- 
cles: 

Sanitation of the house, XII, 601. 

Progress in American sanitary science, 
XXVIII, 442. 

Ventilation of the house, XII, 601; 
ventilation by chimneys, XXIV, 172. 

Sewerage, XXI, 745; XXVIII, 443. 

Plumbing, IV, 449; XXVIII, 442. 

Water-closets, XXI, 751. 

Water-pipes, XII, 508. 

Paper-hangings, IV, 459. 



House- 
building 



Japanese paper-hangings, XIII, 602. 

Tapestry, XXIII, 230. 

Heating apparatus, XI, 527; XXIV, 
174; XXVII, 49. 

Stoves, XXII, 607. 

Ventilation, XXIV, 171. 

The latest improvements in cooking- 
stoves, XXIX, 168. 

furnishing. 

After the house has been built, other 
questions will present themselves, and 
the following articles in the Britannica 
will be read with interest: 

Furniture, IX, 745. 

Bed, XXV, 403. 

Chairs, IX, 746. 

Carpets, V, 112. 

Mural decorations, XVII, 40. 

FOODS. 

The busy housewife, upon whose wis- 
dom and discretion so much of the 
family happiness depends, will find a 
vast fund of information, and often 
some valuable practical suggestions, in 
such articles as these: 

Cooking-stoves, XXII, 608. 

Cookery, VI, 294. 

Adulteration of foods, I, 152. 

Cookery among the Arabs, II, 219. 

Baking, III, 215-23. 

Baking-powder, XXV, 330. 

(233) 



234 



GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA 



Food, XXVI, 671. 

Dairy foods, VI, 677. 

Table showing the composition of 
different foods, XXVI, 671. 

Milk, XVI, 314. 

Cream, XVI, 317. 

Butter, IV, 525. 

Cheese, V, 394. 

Coffee, VI, 100. 

Tea, XXIII, 104. 

Chocolate, V, 591. 

Lard, XIV, 312. 

Use of salt in food, XXVI, 674. 

Sugar, XXII, 655. 

Sugar in the United States, XXVIII, 
22; XXIX, 190. 

Honey, XII, 138. 

Gelatine, X, 117. 

Gluten, X, 620. 

Preserved foods, XIX, 726. 

Jelly, as conserve of fruit, XIII, 573. 

Tinned foods, XIX, 728. 

Arrowroot, II, 551. 

Canning industry, XXVI, 48. 

Macaroni, XV, 126. 

Flour, IX, 300. 

Nutritive lichens, Iceland moss, etc., 
XIV, 563. 

Mushrooms, XVII, 81. 

Curry, VI, 632. 

Cinnamon, V, 686. 

Nutmeg, XVII, 685 (illustrated). 

Allspice, XIX, 106. 

Pepper, XVIII, 526; cayenne, V, 243. 

Confectionery, VI, 228. 

Aerated waters, I, 166. 

Mineral waters, XVI, 450. 

Ice, XII, 646. 

Read the article on Dietetics, VII, 
174. 
Digestion of foods, XXVI, 672. 

Diet in sickness, VII, 178. 

Dietetics ^. . ,.-,•,,• 

The uses of water in dietetics, 
XXIV, 420. 



Meals, VII, 182. 

Plutarch on dietetics, XIX, 245. 

Lord Combermere's rules, VI, 162. 

HOUSEHOLD NECESSITIES AND UTENSILS. 

Candles, IV, 708. 
Lamps, XIV, 245. 
Sewing-machines, XXI, 754. 
Needles, XVII, 322. 
Pins, XIX, 106. 
Thread, VI, 446. 
Combs, VI, 159. 
Brushes, IV, 362. 
Looking-glasses, IX, 746. 
Pottery, see p. 224 of this Guide. 
Cups, XIX, 190. 

emergencies. 

What to do in case of asphyxiation, 
II, 626. 

Antidotes to poisons, XIX, 288. 

What to do in case of burns, XXII, 716. 

Burns and scalds, XXV, 653. 

Some rules for the care of the sick, 
VII, 178. 

Other topics will suggest themselves 
to every intelligent housekeeper, cind 
these may generally be found by refer- 
ring to the Index volume. 

See also Chapters XXXII, XXXIII, 
XXXIV, and L, in this Guide, entitled 
respectively. The Farmer, The Gardener, 
The Fruit-Grower, and The Physician, 

B. SOCIAL life, 
dress. 

A long list of articles on subjects con- 
nected with the social life of the home 
might be given here. The following 
will be sufficient to indicate their num- 
ber and variety: 

Costume: In Volume VI, p. 400, there 
is a complete history of dress, with 
illustrations. 

Gloves, X, 617. 



THE HOME-MAKER 



235 



Girdles, X, 555. 

Shoes, XXI, 869; boots, XXV, 546. 

Hats, XI, 462. 

Ribbons, XX, 546. 

Rings, XX, 574. 

Jewelry, XIII, 686. 

Gems, X, 122; XX, 574., 

Diamonds, VII, 140. 

Laces, XIV, 184. 

Parasols, XXIII, 770. 

Sachets — perfumes, XVIII, 536. 

MUSIC. 

See Chapter LXIV, in this Guide, en- 
titled The Musician. 

AET. 

See Chapter LXIII, entitled The 

Artist. 

INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 

Billiards, III, 583. 

Chess, V, 514; XXVI, 141. 

Checkers, VII, 384. 

Dice, XXVI, 413. 

Backgammon, III, 170. 
'&ames at Cards: Euchre, VIII, 574; 
poker, XIX, 294; whist,XXIV,573; XXIX, 
538; cribbage, VI, 509; casino, XXVI, 80; 
bezique, III, 539; loo, XV, 3; picquet, 
XIX, 122; ecarte, VII, 536; napoleon, 
XVII, 235; faro, XXVI, 621; baccarat, 
XXV, 315; seven-up, XXIX, 65. 

Riddles, XX, 564. 

Charades, V, 345. 

White magic, XIV, 415; XV, 207. 

Dancing, VI, 703-705; hornpipe, XII, 
175; reel, VI, 705; Spanish bolero, XXV, 
535; fandango, XXVI, 615. 

Calisthenics, XI, 313. 



OUTDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 

See Chapter V, in this Guide, entitled 
Games, Sports, and Pastimes; also 
Tennis, XXIII, 195, 198. 
Croquet, VI, 537. 
Golf, X, 680. 
Cricket, VI, 511. 
Football, IX, 321; XXVI, 674. 
Polo, XIX, 417. 
Baseball, XXV, 377. 

Horsemanship, XII, 199. 
Fox-hunting, VII, 285; XII, 328. 
Shooting, XXI, 871. 
Archery, II, 325. 
Fishing, II, 30. 
Bicycling, XXV, 465. 
Skating, XXII, 112. 
Swimming, XXII, 806. 
Rowing, XXI, 35. 
Canoeing, IV, 716. 
Yachting, XXIV, 758-61. 

PASTIMES. 

Autograph collecting. III, 123. 
Stamp collecting, XIX, 605. 
Crocheting, XIV, 128. 
Amateur photography, XXVIII, 410. 
Hammered metal-work, XVI, 78. 
Embroidery, VIII, 148. 
Decalcomania, XXVI, 376. 
Ceramics, XIX, 617; XXVI, 97. 
Reading, see Chapter LVII, entitled 
The Bookman. 

Cigars, V, 678; XXIII, 454. 
Wine, XXIV, 633. 
Coffee, VI, 100. 
Tea, XXIII, 104. 

Clubs, VI, 38; XXVI, 204. 
Women's clubs, XXVI, 205. 



INDEX 



Acoustics, 78, 79. 
Actor, The, 229-32, 
Adventurers, 20. 
Agriculture, 125. 
Alchemy, 95, 188. 
Algebra, 75. 
Almanacs, 56-57. 
American Citizen, The, 150-53. 
American history, 37-39 ; literature, 44-45 ; pol- 
itics, 151-53 ; colleges, 209-10. 
Amusements, 31—33, 235. 
Ancient art, 82-83, 117-19, 222, 223, 224. 
Ancient history, 39-40. 
Ancient literature, 47^9 
Angling, 32, 60. 
Animals, 29-31, 57-63. 
Antiquities, 81-83, 223, 224. 
Apothecary, The, 186-87. 
ArchEeology, 81-83, 223, 224. 
Archery, 31-32. 
Architect, The, 117-19. 
Arithmetic, 74-75. 
Arms and armor, 145-46. 
Artist, The, 28, 222-26. 
Aryan languages, 51-52. 
Astrology, 55, 95. 
Astronomy, 54-57. 
Athletic sports, 33. 
Authors, 28, 44-51 

Ball, Games of, 31. 
Balloons, 109. 
Banker, The, 164, 165-68. 
Banks and banking, 164, 165-68. 
Battles, 147-49. 

Bible — History, 87; geography, 89; circula- 
tion, etc., 197. 
Bible student. The, 87-90. 
Bicycling, 33. 



Biographies : adventurers, 20 ; alchemists, 95 ; 
Americans, great, 22-23 ; American writers, 
44_45 ; anti-slavery leaders, 200 ; astrologists, 
95 ; astronomers, 55 ; authors, 28, 44-51 ; 
bankers, 168 ; Bible characters, 88-89 ; bot- 
anists, 63-64 ; cheerfulness, men of, 27 ; 
chemists, 188 ; colonists, 22 ; determination, 
men of, 26 ; diligence, men of, 25-26 ; discov- 
erers, 20, 22 ; dramatists, 229-31 ; electricians, 
111 ; energy, men of, 26 ; Englishmen, great, 
42-43 ; English writers, 45-47 ; financiers, 
168 ; geologists, 140 ; illustrators, 225-26 ; 
integrity, men of, 27 ; inventors, 114-15 ; 
journalists, 221-22 ; kings, 19 ; lawyers, 175 ; 
librarians, 206 ; logicians, 85 ; mathematicians, 
74-76 ; merchants, 172 ; missionaries, 198- 
99 ; musicians, 226-28 ; noble motives, men of, 
27 ; orators, 201-02 ; painters, 222-23 ; pa- 
tience, men of, 26-27 ; patriots, 153 ; philan- 
thropists, 199 ; philosophers, 83-86 ; physi- 
cians, 182-83 ; political economists, 164-65 ; 
preachers, 195-96 ; precision, men of, 27 ; 
Presidents, 22-23 ; printers, 219 ; prisoners' 
friends, 199 ; reformers, 200 ; psychologists, 
211 ; religious leaders, 195-96 ; scientists, 59 ; 
sculptors, 223-24 ; social reformers, 201 ; 
soldiers, 19, 150; statesmen, 19, 153 ; teachers, 
208 ; temperance advocates, 201, 202 ; theo- 
logians, 195-96 ; warriors, 19, 150 ; woman- 
sufEragists, 200; young men, great, 28-29; 
zoologists, 59. 

Biography, Home readings in, 25. 

Biology, General course of reading in, 57-58 ; 
great biologists, 59 ; miscellaneous topics 
in, 62-63. 

Birds, 29-30, 62. 

Blacksmith, The, 106. 

Boatman, The, 32-33. 

Bookish subjects, 205-06. 

(237) 



238 



INDEX 



Bookkeeper, The, 155. 

Bookman, The, 203-06. 

Books and libraries, 51, 206. 

Books, One hundred great, 203-05. 

Books for lawyers, 180. 

Books of the Bible, 87-88. 

Bookselling, 220. 

Botany, 57-58, 63-65. See Plants. 

Boys and girls. To the, 17-21. 

Brewer, The, 202. 

Bricklayer, The, 120. 

Brickmaker, The, 104. 

Bridges, 121-22, 144. 

Builder, The, 119-21, 233. 

Buildings, Famous, 119. 

Burial customs, 98. 

Butcher, The, 136. 

Calendars, 56-57. 

Canals, 122, 171. 

Carpenter, The, 106, 120. 

Carrier, The public, 171. 

Ceramic art, 103, 224. 

Chemist, The, 187-89. 

Christianity, 191-97. 

Christian legends, 93. 

Church history, 195-96 ; government, 197. 

Civil service, 153-63. 

Classification in zoology, 61 ; in botany, 64. 

Clerk- copyist. The, 156. 

Clerk, The custom-house, 160. 

Climate, 72-73. 

Colleges, 209-10. 

Clothier, The, 234-35. 

Composer, The musical, 226-28. 

Cooperation, 128, 164-65, 174. 

Crime, 181. 

Criminal, The, 181. 

Curious customs, 98. 

Curious inventions, 97. 

Curious people, 98. 

Curious races, 81. 

Curious things, 18-19. 

Curious things in the sea, 140. 

Custom-house service, 155, 160. 

Dairyman, The, 135. 
Death and burial, 98. 
Debater, The, 202. 



Desultory reader's course, 97-98. 

Detective, The police, 163. 

Discoverers, 20, 22. 

Divorce, 176. 

Draftsman, The, 157, 225-26. 

Drama, The, 50 ; history of, 229-31. 

Dramatist, The, 229-31. 

Drawing, 157, 225-26. 

Dress, 234-35. 

Druggist, The, 186-87. 

Dynamics, 110. 

Education, 206-12 ; theories of, 211-12. 
Electrician, The, 110-13. 
Electric machinery, 112. 
Emergencies, 234. 
Encyclopaedia, What it is, 17. 
Engineer, The, 121-23 ; steam engineer, 1D8. 
English biography, 42^3 ; drama, 230-31 ; 
history, 42-43 ; legends, 93 ; literature, 45-47. 
Engraver, The, 225. 
Essays, Subjects for, 214-18. 
Ethics, 83-84. 
Ethnology, 81. 
Evil spirits, 95-96. 
Explanations of references, xii-xiii. 

Fabled animals, 30. 

Fables, 94. 

Fairy stories, 94. 

Farmer, The, 125-29. 

Farmer, The Indian, 159-60. 

Fiction, History of, 50. 

Financier, The, 165-70. 

Fireman, The, 163. 

Fisherman, The, 32, 60, 142. 

Fish-culturist, The, 60. 

Fisheries, 142. 

Fishes, 60, 62. 

Fishing, 32, 60, 142. 

Florist, The, 129-31. 

Flowers. See Botany and Gardener. 

Foods, 233-34. 

Forestry, 133-34. 

Fortification, 122-23. 

Free trade, 165, 170-71. 

French language, 52 ; literature, 49 

Fruit-grower, The, 131-32, 134. 



INDEX 



239 



Funeral rites, etc., 98. 
Furnishing, 233. 

Games, Outdoor, 31-32, 235 ; Indoor, 32, 235. 

Gardener, The, 129-31. 

Geography, History of, 65-66 ; maps in the 

Britannica, 67-71 ; geographical subjects, 71- 

72 ; geography of United States, 72. 
Geologist, The, 139-40. 
Geometry, 75. 

German language, 52 ; literature, 49-50. 
Girls, To the boys and, 17-21. 
Glass-maker, The, 103. 
Glazier, The, 121. 
Goldsmith, The, 103. 
Government, 150-53. 
Grammar, 213. 
Greek drama, 48, 229-30; history, 39-40; 

language, 52 ; legends, 91-93 ; literature, 

47^8, 49 ; mythology, 91. 
Grocer, The, 170. 
Gymnastics, 33. 

Harbors, 122. 

Health inspector, The, 162. 

Heat, 78, 79, 116. 

Hebrew language, 52 ; literature, 49. 

Heroes, 19. 

History, Home readings in, 21-24 ; naval his- 
tory, 23 ; romance of, 23-24 ; three courses 
of reading in, 37^3 ; American, 37-39 ; 
Ancient, 39-40; Greek, 39-40; Roman, 
24, 40 ; Modern, 41^3. 

Home-maker, The, 233-35. 

Horse, The, 135. 

How to do things, 20. 

Huntsman, The, 32. 

Hydromechanics, 78, 108. 

Ichthyology, 60, 62. 

Illustrator, The, 225-26. 

Imaginary beings, 96. 

Indian teacher, 158 ; physician, 159 ; farmer, 

159-60. 
Index volume, How to use the, xn-xiv. 
Industries of the sea, 142. 
Insurance agent, The, 173-74. 
International law, 157. 
Inventions, Curious, 97 ; Famous, 115-16. 



Inventor, The, 113-17. 

Irish history, 43. 

Israelites, Journey of the, 89-90. 

Italian language, 52 ; literature, 50. 

Jeweler, The, 189-90, 235. 
Journalist, The, 221-22. 
Justice, Administration of, 177. 

Kings, 19. 

Knighthood, Tales of, 23-24. 

Labor and capital, 123-24. 

Laborer, The, 123-24, 164. 

Labor organizations, 124. 

Language, 81 ; History of, 51-53. 

Latin language, 52 ; literature, 48-49. 

Lawyer, The, 174-80. 

Leather-worker, The, 107. 

Lecturer, The, 202-03. 

Legends, 91-94. 

Legerdemain, 32, 235. 

Letter-carrier, The, 160. 

Librarian, The, 51, 163, 206, 220. 

Libraries, 51, 163, 206, 220 

Lighthouses, 122. 

Liquor-dealer, The, 200-01, 202-03. 

Literature, Five courses of reading in, 44-51 ; 
American, 44-45 ; English, 45-47 ; Greek, 
47-48 ; Roman, 48-49 ; Hebrew, 49 ; French, 

49 ; fifteen great literatures, 49-50 ; fiction, 

50 ; the drama, 50, 229-32 ; poetry, 50-51. 
Logic, 85-86. 

Lumbering, 133. 

Machinery, Electric, 112. 

Machinist, The, 108-10. 

Magic, 95 ; White, 235. 

Magistrate, The, 180-81. 

Magnetism, 79, 112. 

Mail-clerk, The railway, 158. 

Man, Readings in the study of, 80-83. 

Manufacturer, The, 101-04. 

Manufacturing centres, 104. 

Maps in the Britannica, 67-71. 

Marriage, 81, 176. 

Mason, The, 120. 

Mathematics, 74-76. 

Meat inspector, The, 136, 157-58. 



240 



INDEX 



Mechanic, The, 105-07. 

Mechanics, Laws of, 109-10, 116. 

Medical inspector. The, 162. 

Medicine, 182-86. 

Merchant, The, 170-72. 

Metal-worker, The, 106-07 ; art metal-work, 

224. 
Metaphysic, 84-85. 
Meteorology, 72-73. 
Milkman, The, 135-36. 
Miner, The, 137-38. 
Mineralogist, The, 137-38, 189-90. 
Mineral manufactures, 102—03. 
Minerals, 137-38, 189-90. 
Mints, 166. 

Missionary, The, 198-99. 
Money, History of, 165-66. 
Municipal service. The, 161—63. 
Musician, The, 28, 226-28. 
Mutual-benefit societies, 174. . 
Mysticism, 95. 
Mythology, Readings in, 90-94. 

Natural history, 29-31. 
Natural philosophy, 77-79. 
Naval history, 23 ; battles, 149. 
Navigator, The, 141. 
Navy, The, 23, 143. 
Necromancy, 95. 
Norse mythology, 91. 

Occult sciences, 94-96. 
Ocean life, 60, 61-62. 
Optics, 78, 79. 
Oratory, 201-03. 
Ornithology, 60, 62. 

Painter, The, 222-23. 
Paper-maker, The, 107. 
Parks, 134. 

Parliamentary rules, 202. 
Pastimes, 31-33, 235. 
Pasturage, 136-37. 
Paul, Journeys of, 90. 
Pauperism, 164, 200. 
Pension examiner. The, 156. 
Pharmacist, The, 186-87. 
Philanthropist, The, 198-201. 
Philology, 51-53. 



Philosophers, 28, 83-86. 
Philosophy, Readings in, 83-86. 
Photographer, The, 225. 
Physician, The, 159, 182-86. 
Physics, Readings in, 77-79. 
Plants, 63-65, 129-31, 132, 134. 
Plasterer, The, 121. 
Plumber, The, 120-21. 
Pneumatics, 78, 108-09. 
Policeman, The, 163, 180-81. 
Political economist, The, 163-65. 
Politics, American, 151-53< 
Population, 164. 
Post-ofEce service, 160. 
Potter, The, 103, 224. 
Pottery, 103, 224. 
Poultryman, The, 136. 
Preacher, The, 191-97. 
Precious metals, 103. 
Printer, The, 160-61, 219-20. 
Prisoners' friends, 199. 
Protection, 165, 170-71. 
Psychology, 85, 211. 
Publisher, The, 219-20. 
Punishment, 181. 

Quarryman, The, 137. 

Races of men, 80 ; Some curious, 81. 

Radiance, 79. 

Railroad-man, The, 143^44. 

References, Explanations of, xii-xiii. 

Reformer, The, 198-201. 

Religions, 191-97. 

Reptiles, 60, 62. 

Revenue service. The, 161. 

Rhetoric, 213. 

Roads, 122. 

Roman Catholicism, 193-94. 

Roman history, 40 ; language, 52 ; literature, 

48-49. 
Rome, Stories of, 24. 
Roofer's work, 120. 
Rowing, 32. 

Sailor, The, 140-43. 

Schoolmaster, The, 206-12. 

Schools, Agricultural, 128-29; Special, 208, 210. 

Science, Home readings in, 29-31. 



INDEX 



241 



Scottish history, 43. 

Sculptor, The, 223-24. 

Sea, Curious things in the, 142. 

Sea Industries, 142. 

Sea, Wonders of the, 142. 

Seaman, The, 140-43. 

Semitic languages, 52-53. 

Shipbuilding, 140-41. 

Ships, 23, 140-41. 

Shoemaker, The, 103, 107. 

Slater, The, 120. 

Slavery, 124, 200. 

Social life, 234-35. 

Sociology, 83, 86. 

Soldier, The, 145-50. 

Sound, 78, 79. 

Speaker, The public, 201-03. 

Special schools, 208, 210. 

Spinner, The, 101-02. 

Spiritualism, 96. 

Standard of value, 166. 

Statesmen, 19. 

Steam engine, 108. 

Stenographer, The, 218-19. 

Stock-raiser, The, 135-37. 

Stone-cutter, The, 107, 120. 

Sun worship, 55. 

Supernatural, Readings in the, 94-96. 

Superstitious beliefs, 94-96. 

Surgeon, The, 184. 

Surveyor, The, 121. 

Tanner, The, 107. 
Tariff, 165, 170-71. 
Taxation, 164. 
Teacher, The, 206-12. 
Teacher, The, in Indian schools, 158-59. 
Temperance, 200-01, 202-03. 
16 



Textile products, 101-02. 
Theatre, The, 231-32. 
Theologian, The, 191-97. 
Trader, The, 170-72. 
Transportation, 171. 
Trigonometry, 75. 
Truck-farmer, The, 131. 
Typewriter, The, 156, 218-19. 

United States, geography, 72 ; history, 37-39," 

literature, 44-45. 
Universities, 208, 209-10. 

Vegetable garden, 131. 
Vintner, The, 132. 

Wages, 124, 164. 

Warriors, 19, 150. 

Wars, 146-47. 

Waterworks, 122. 

Wealth, 164. 

Weather bureau, 73, 157. 

Weaver, The, 101-02. 

Weight and motion, 79. 

Winds, 73. 

Wines, 132. 

Witchcraft, 95. 

Woman suffrage, 200. 

Woman's household work, 233-34. 

Women's clubs, 235. 

Wonders of the sea, 142. 

Wood-carving, 224-25. 

Woodsman, The, 133-84. 

Wood-worker, The, 106. 

World, A view of the, 66-67. 

Writer, The, 212-18. 

ZoSlogy, 29-31, 58-63. 



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